Venous Stenting for the Treatment of Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension
Number: 1039
Table Of Contents
PolicyApplicable CPT / HCPCS / ICD-10 Codes
Background
References
Policy
Scope of Policy
This Clinical Policy Bulletin addresses venous stenting for the treatment of idiopathic intracranial hypertension.
-
Medical Necessity
Aetna considers venous stent placement in the transverse sinus medically necessary for the treatment of medically refractory idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH) (also known as pseudotumor cerebri) when the following criteria are met:
- Ophthalmologic evaluation documents vision loss (vision fields or acuity) and papilledema; and
- Complete neurologic examination shows no focal neurologic deficit (except vision loss and cranial nerve VI palsy); and
- Neuroimaging (MRI with and without contrast or CT if unable to have MRI) excludes intracranial mass lesions, infection, hydrocephalus, underlying structural defects (e.g., Chiari malformation) and venous sinus thrombosis; and
- A procedure note documents intracranial pressure (ICP) elevation greater than or equal to 25 cm water cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) during lumbar puncture (LP) performed in lateral decubitus position within the past 3 months; and
- CSF analysis is normal (no pleocytosis, elevated protein, hypoglycorrhachia, abnormal cytology, or other indication of infection or malignancy); and
- Normal complete blood count (CBC), electrolytes, prothrombin time/partial thromboplastin time (PT/PTT) are documented (and exclude anemia, hypercoagulable state); and
- Blood pressure is under 150 mmHg systolic, excluding hypertensive encephalopathy; and
- The following conditions have been excluded: obstructive sleep apnea, systemic lupus erythematosus, vasculitis, lead poisoning, neurosarcoidosis; and
- Magnetic resonance venography (MRV) documents bilateral focal transverse sinus stenosis or unilateral focal transverse sinus stenosis and contralateral hypoplasia; and
- Failure of maximal medical management and CSF shunting is documented; and
- There must be a documented pressure gradient greater than 8 mmHg across the stenosis (this step is not required for prior-authorization if all the above criteria are met; but should be documented during venography prior to stent placement).
-
Experimental, Investigational, or Unproven
Aetna considers intravascular ultrasound experimental, investigational, or unproven for optimizing candidate selection in venous sinus stenting because the effectiveness of this approach has not been established.
Background
Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH), also known as pseudotumor cerebri, is a clinical syndrome characterized by increased intra-cranial pressure (ICP) with normal cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) composition without a known cause. Symptoms associated with increased ICP include headache, papilledema, double vision, transient visual obscurations, and vision loss. While IIH typically affects young, obese women, it is relatively rare in children; and its demographic features may differ from those of adults. Before diagnosing IIH, secondary causes of increased ICP should be excluded. While neurosurgical management of IIH remains controversial, shunting and endovascular stenting techniques are part of the neurosurgical armamentarium for the treatment of patients with medically refractory IIH symptoms. Venous sinus stenting (VSS) is a relatively new therapeutic option for the treatment of IIH. Its use results from the observation that many patients with IIH have apparent stenoses of the transverse venous sinus or other cerebral veins; although whether this is a primary or secondary phenomenon is uncertain (Bruce et al, 2010; Wall and Lee, 2023).
Kabanovski et al (2022) stated that dural VSS (DVSS) is a relatively new intervention for the treatment of IIH refractory to medical therapy and lifestyle modifications. In a systematic review, these investigators outlined various hypotheses of IIH pathogenesis and described the role of venous sinus stenosis and the technical details of DVSS. They also presented a summary and critique of the available evidence describing the outcomes of DVSS in IIH and examined the evidence-based guidelines for this procedure. The authors concluded that, although many studies have shown generally favorable outcomes of DVSS in patients with IIH, most have serious limitations, the most common one being paucity of pre- and post-procedure ophthalmological data. Therefore, there is inadequate available evidence to conclude whether DVSS is an effective procedure for the treatment of IIH. These researchers also presented the most commonly used indications for DVSS as described in the literature and emphasized the importance of neuro-ophthalmological assessment before and after the procedure to monitor response and potential complications.
Barrero Ruiz et al (2022) examined the scientific literature on pediatric cases of IIH and its treatment with VVS. These investigators presented the case of a 6-year-old girl with a life-threatening presentation of IIH, who was treated with transverse sinus stenting and a lumbo-peritoneal shunt. They summarized the characteristic of pediatric stenting cases reported and reviewed the literature focusing on the main aspects of VVS. The authors concluded that VSS could be a therapeutic tool for the acute presentation of IIH with severe symptoms and venous sinus stenosis plus an elevated trans-stenotic pressure gradient. However, in some cases, additional surgical treatment may be necessary.
Mugge et al (2022) noted that fulminant IIH can cause rapid vision loss. Transverse sinus stenosis is a finding often associated with IIH, and transverse sinus stenting has been used to rapidly reduce ICP and improve visual symptoms. These researchers described a case of immediate alteration in reversed superior ophthalmic vein (SOV) flow in a fulminant IIH patient who underwent VSS. All charts, imaging, and notes spanning from the initial presentation to the post-intervention follow-up were reviewed and summarized for inclusion. Subject was a 24-year-old woman who presented with several weeks of severe headaches and progressive vision loss. She was found to have severe papilledema and the opening pressure on lumbar puncture (LP) was 70 mm Hg. Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed findings consistent with elevated ICP, and CT venography revealed stenosis of the right transverse sinus. She underwent an uncomplicated diagnostic cerebral angiogram, right venous sinus manometry, and right transverse to sigmoid sinus stenting procedure. Before deployment of the stent, a trans-stenotic pressure gradient of 12 mm Hg was observed within the right transverse-sigmoid junction, and flow through the bilateral SOVs was retrograde. Following stent placement, the pressure gradient normalized, and SOV flow was bi-directional. She subjectively reported improved vision, and there was improving papilledema. Repeat LP yielded an opening pressure of 21.6 mm Hg. The authors concluded that this case showed reversed SOV flow should be considered an indicator of severe venous sinus stenosis, and restoration to normal or near normal state following stenting for IIH is likely indicative of procedural success.
Wang et al (2022) identified the main factors that might affect the clinical outcome of patients with IIH treated with VSS. These researchers carried out an analysis of a prospectively collected database of patients with IIH and venous sinus stenosis who underwent stenting. The trans-stenotic pressure gradient was measured before and after intervention. Furthermore, patients' baseline characteristics, procedure details and clinical outcomes at 6-month follow-up (including changes in headache, visual impairment, papilledema, etc.) were recorded. The effects of post-intervention pressure gradient on symptom-free at 6 months were examined using logistic regression analysis, generalized additive model and receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve. Of 101 patients included in this study, the median pressure gradient across stenosis decreased from 19 mmHg before intervention to 2 mmHg after intervention. At 6 months, symptom-free was observed in 58 cases (57.4 %). Multi-variable logistic analysis and generalized additive model showed that post-intervention pressure gradient (increased by 1 mmHg) was independently and linearly correlated with symptom-free (odds ratio [OR] = 0.79, 95 % confidence interval [CI]: 0.67 to 0.94). Moreover, the post-intervention pressure gradient revealed moderate discrimination with an area under ROC curve of 0.68 (95 % CI: 0.57 to 0.78). Similar associations were observed for the disappearance of headache and papilledema, but not for the visual recovery. The authors concluded that the post-intervention pressure gradient may be a valid and reliable predictor of 6-month clinical outcome in patients with IIH and venous sinus stenosis treated by stenting.
Nia et al (2022) noted that DVSS is an effective intervention for patients with IIH refractory to medical treatment. These investigators examined the effectiveness in a large multi-center sample. A total of 541 patients over the age of 18 years who underwent VSS within 3 years of IIH diagnosis were queried using Current Procedural Terminology and International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision codes from the TriNetX Analytics Network. Patient demographics, baseline symptoms, procedures, and clinical outcomes were evaluated within 1 year post-operatively. Outcomes examined were headache, tinnitus, blindness/low vision, optic nerve sheath fenestration (ONSF), CSF shunt, and use of medications (acetazolamide, methazolamide, furosemide, topiramate, tricyclic antidepressants, and valproate) for IIH. Pre-stent and post-stent data were compared using Fisher exact test, and the ORs were computed using the Baptista-Pike method. The mean age at VSS was 36.7 ± 10.6 years; 92 % were female, 65 % of patients were Caucasian, 25 % were Black/African American, 1 % were Asian, and 9 % were of other/unknown race. Within the 1-year follow-up, acetazolamide and topiramate use were significantly reduced post-VSS (p < 0.0001; OR = 0.45; CI: 0.35 to 0.57 and p = 0.03∗; OR, 0.71; CI: 0.52 to 0.95, respectively). Furthermore, headaches, visual disturbance, dizziness/giddiness, and tinnitus significantly improved post-VSS (p < 0.005). Finally, the number of CSF shunt procedures and ONSF procedures showed no significant change post-VSS (p > 0.05). The authors concluded that VSS was a safe and effective procedure resulting in significant improvement of headaches, visual impairment, dizziness, and tinnitus; and acetazolamide/topiramate usage were lower after VSS in patients with IIH. The paucity of pre-VSS and post-VSS CSF shunt and ONSF procedure data did not provide enough evidence to establish significance.
In a prospective, cohort study, Yang et al (2025) examined the impact of the pressure gradient on papilledema after stenting in patients with IIH and venous sinus stenosis. These researchers examined 121 patients with IIH and venous sinus stenosis who underwent stenting. The papilledema Frisen grade at the 1-month follow-up was used as a grouping factor (favorable outcome: 0 to 1; unfavorable outcome: 2 to 5). These investigators used multi-variable logistic regression modeling to determine independent predictors of favorable outcome. The performance of the prediction model was examined using a ROC analysis. Subjects included 96 patients had papilledema grades 0 to 1, and 25 patients had papilledema grades 2 to 5. Patients in the 1st group had significantly lower gradient pressures pre-operatively (15.2 mmHg versus 21.4 mmHg, p = 0.001) and post-operatively (2 mmHg versus 3.3 mmHg, p = 0.002) relative to those in the 2nd group. Multi-variate analysis indicated that pre-operative pressure gradient (OR = 1.119; 95 % CI: 1.034 to 1.211]) and post-operative pressure gradient (OR = 1.498; 95 % CI: 1.147 to 1.957) were independent predictors of favorable outcome. In the ROC analysis, the cut-off pressure gradient for the highest sensitivity (0.44) and specificity (0.874) was 22.75 mmHg, with a Youden's index of 0.314. Survival analysis showed that patients with a pre-operative pressure gradient of less than 22.75 mmHg had more rapid improvement of papilledema than did those with a pressure gradient greater than 22.75 mmHg (mean +/- SD: 2.639 +/- 0.382 [95 % CI: 1.890 to 3.388] versus mean +/- SD: 3.882 +/- 0.884 [95 % CI: 2.149 to 5.616]; p = 0.004). The authors concluded that a significant reduction in the pressure gradient appeared to be strongly correlated with the success of VSS in patients with IIH. A higher pre-operative pressure gradient may reduce stenting effectiveness in patients with IIH.
Gorjian et al (2023) stated that VSS for medically refractory IIH is emerging as a safe and effective alternative to shunting. However, stent navigation past the jugular bulb with commonly used carotid stenting systems via femoral access in cases with tortuous venous anatomy can present a challenge, leading to procedural failure. These researchers presented a technical refinement using a cervical access and peripheral vascular stent with a more stable 0.035-in delivery platform as an alternative to the traditional approach to simplify the procedure and overcome the technical difficulties in cases with tortuous venous anatomy. The authors’ institutional database for patients who had IIH and undergone VSS using the peripheral vascular stent between 2013 and 2023 was retrospectively reviewed. Data on 36 patients (33 women, 3 men, mean age of 32 years) was collected. VSS was technically successful in all patients (100 %) without major complications or thrombosis. There was 1 case of minor neck cellulitis treated with oral antibiotics; 3 patients underwent repeat stenting, and 2 patients had ventriculo-peritoneal (VP) shunt placement after stenting due to persistent or recurrent symptoms. All patients (100 %) had improvement or resolution of papilledema; however, 6 patients had evidence of optic atrophy and persistent vision loss. Headache was resolved or improved in 91 % of patients. In the presence of tortuous venous anatomy, VSS using cervical access and a peripheral vascular stent with a more stable 0.035-in. delivery platform can be considered as a safe and effective alternative approach with shorter procedure time. This approach is particularly advantageous in situations where the procedure is prolonged or high dose of contrast has been administered due to the technical challenges associated with the traditional use of carotid systems via femoral access for stent delivery.
Khunte et al (2023) cerebral VSS has emerged as a new surgical procedure for the treatment of severe IIH, and its popularity has been anecdotally on the rise. These investigators examined recent temporal trends of VSS and other surgical IIH treatments in the U.S. Adult IIH patients were identified from the 2016 to 2020 National Inpatient Sample databases, and surgical procedures and hospital characteristics were recorded. Temporal trends of procedure numbers for VSS, CSF shunts, and (ONSF were assessed and compared. A total of 46,065 (95 % CI: 44,710 to 47,420) IIH patients were identified, of whom 7,535 patients (95 % CI: 6,982 to 8,088) received surgical IIH treatments. VSS procedures increased 80 % (150 [95 % CI: 55 to 245) to 270 (95 % CI: 162 to 378) per year (p < 0.001). Concurrently, the number of CSF shunts decreased by 19 % (1,365 [95 % CI: 1,126 to 1,604] to 1,105 (95 % CI: 900 to 1,310] per year, p < 0.001), and ONSF procedures decreased by 54 % (65 [95 % CI: 20 to 110] to 30 [95 % CI: 6 to 54] per year, p < 0.001). The authors concluded that practice patterns for surgical IIH treatment in the U.S. are rapidly evolving, and VSS is becoming increasingly common.
Furthermore, an UpToDate review on “Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri): Prognosis and treatment” (Wall and Lee, 2023) states that “Choice of procedure -- The two main surgical procedures in IIH are optic nerve sheath fenestration (ONSF) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) shunting procedures. Cerebral venous sinus stenting is an alternative intervention for IIH”.
Balloon Guide Catheters During Venous Sinus Stenting
Turpin et al (2024) stated that VSS is a safe and effective treatment strategy for pulsatile tinnitus (PT) and IIH. Although complications are rare, the morbidity associated with the complications is high. Navigating through the venous sinuses poses unique challenges to the interventionalist. There is limited literature regarding device selection to maximize safety and efficiency. In a retrospective, case-series study, these investigators reported on the safety and advantages of using a balloon guide catheter (BGC) for venous access in VSS. They analyzed results of patients undergoing VSS using a BGC over a 3-month period. A total of 22 patients were included in the analysis (median age of 35 years; 21 women). The indication for treatment was PT in 10 patients and IIH in 12 patients. The BGC was navigated into the sigmoid and transverse sinuses, enabling successful delivery of the stent in all cases. The BGC balloon was inflated 23 times for navigating past tortuosity or obstructions, and for anchoring. There were no intra-procedural complications. The authors concluded that the use of BGC in VSS was safe and feasible; BGCs have features that can be employed to overcome the unique challenges encountered during VSS. This was a retrospective study with small sample size (n = 22 subjects); these preliminary findings need to be validated by well-designed studies.
Venous Sinus Stenting versus Ventriculo-Peritoneal Shunting
Hilvert et al (2024) noted that VSS has been shown to reduce intra-cranial venous pressures and improved symptoms in patients with IIH; however, long-term follow-up data are limited, raising concerns regarding sustained symptom improvement. In a retrospective, case-control study, these researchers examined long-term outcomes of VSS compared with ventriculo-peritoneal shunting (VPS). This trial evaluated 87 patients with IIH who met inclusion criteria and underwent either VSS (n = 27) or VPS (n = 60) between 2017 and 2022. Descriptive statistics for baseline characteristics and outcomes were calculated, followed by multi-variate logistic regression to identify factors associated with headache recurrence. Baseline characteristics were similar between VSS and VPS groups, including age (p = 0.58), sex (p = 0.74), body mass index (BMI; p = 0.47), and pre-operative lumbar puncture opening pressure (p = 0.62). Pre-operative symptoms of headaches (p= 0.42), papilledema (p = 0.35), and pulsatile tinnitus (p = 0.56) were also similar. Initial headache improvement was comparable (96 % versus 91 %, p = 0.42); however, headache recurrence was less common in the VSS group (31 % versus 60 %, p = 0.015) at the last follow-up, averaging over 1 year. Multi-variate analysis showed VSS was independently associated with reduced odds of headache recurrence (OR = 0.24, p = 0.015). Longer follow-up was associated with increased odds of headache recurrence in both groups (OR = 1.01, p = 0.032). The authors concluded that VSS was independently associated with reduced odds of headache recurrence compared with VPS in multi-variate analysis. Longer follow-up was significantly associated with headache recurrence in both groups suggesting that VSS may result in better outcomes for continued headache relief; however, headache recurrence may increase with longer follow-up regardless of treatment modality.
Intravascular Ultrasound for Optimizing Patient Selection in Venous Sinus Stenting
Turpin et al (2025) noted that VSS is an established treatment for IIH, and pulsatile tinnitus (PT); however, optimal patient selection remains a challenge. Current protocols rely on catheter angiography and manometry-based pressure gradients, which can be operator-dependent and subject to measurement variability. Intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) offers real-time, cross-sectional visualization of venous anatomy, potentially providing more consistent and objective assessments of stenosis severity. In a retrospective, single-center, pilot study, these researchers discussed the results of 31 patients undergoing venography with IVUS over an 8-month period for suspected venous sinus stenosis. The point of maximal stenosis severity was measured using both angiography and IVUS, and findings were compared to intra-vascular pressure gradients. A pressure difference or gradient of 8 mmHg or greater in IIH and 4 mmHg or greater in PT across the stenosis was considered clinically significant based on prior prospective trial criteria. Patients included those with IIH (41.9 %) or PT (58.1 %). Mean maximal stenosis was 51.2 % by angiography and 65.2 % by IVUS. The agreement between different reviewers measuring angiographic stenosis was low (r² = 0.19), and IVUS-based stenosis correlated more strongly with pressure gradients than angiographic estimates (r = 0.78 versus 0.46, p = 0.044). An IVUS-measured stenosis of 53.2 % or greater predicted a clinically significant pressure gradient (8 mmHg or greater) with 100 % sensitivity and 66.7 % specificity. No IVUS-related complications occurred. The authors concluded that IVUS was a safe and promising adjunct to conventional venography for evaluating venous sinus stenosis, with stronger correlation to physiologic pressure gradients than angiographic estimates. These findings suggested that IVUS may enhance patient selection for VSS by more accurately identifying candidates likely to benefit from intervention, potentially increasing treatment eligibility and intervention rates. By refining diagnostic accuracy, IVUS may also contribute to improved long-term symptom relief. However, these researchers stated that, given the retrospective, single-center design and limited sample size (n = 31), prospective, multi-center studies with larger sample size are needed to validate these preliminary findings and better define the role of IVUS in clinical decision-making.
Transverse Venous Sinus Stenting versus Cerebrospinal Fluid Shunting in the Treatment of Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension
Intrapiromkul et al (2025) stated that CSF shunting and transverse VSS (T-VSS) are promising treatment choices for IIH, addressing different aspects of IIH pathophysiology; however, large-scale comparative data remain limited. These researchers carried out a retrospective, multi-national, multi-center, propensity score-matched analysis using the TriNetX platform. Adult patients diagnosed with IIH who underwent either T-VSS or CSF shunting were included. The primary outcome was treatment failure, defined as the need for subsequent procedures (repeat T-VSS, CSF shunt, or optic nerve fenestration). Secondary outcomes included residual symptoms (headache, visual disturbances, dizziness, and pulsatile tinnitus), ongoing use of IIH-related medications (furosemide, acetazolamide, and topiramate), as well as healthcare utilization, assessed via unplanned hospital re-admissions and emergency department (ED) visits at 1 year follow-up. Of 134,530 IIH patients identified, 1,362 underwent T-VSS, and 5,278 underwent CSF shunting. After propensity score-matching, patients who received T-VSS had significantly lower odds of repeat interventions (9.6 % versus 38.6 %; OR 0.169, 95 % CI: 0.136 to 0.212, p < 0.001). They also had significantly lower odds of residual headache, visual disturbances, and papilledema. However, T-VSS was associated with higher odds of persistent pulsatile tinnitus (6.7 % versus 2.2 %; OR 3.183, p <0.001). In addition, T-VSS was associated with lower odds of unplanned inpatient re-admissions (24.1 % versus 40.5 %; OR 0.466, p < 0.001) and ED visits (22.0 % versus 34.0 %; OR 0.548, p < 0.001). The authors concluded that both T-VSS and CSF shunting resulted in symptomatic improvement and reduced medication use in patients with IIH. However, T-VSS was associated with significantly lower treatment failure rates, fewer residual papilledema, headaches and visual symptoms, as well as reduced healthcare utilization. On the other hand, persistent pulsatile tinnitus was more common following T-VSS.
Venous Sinus Stenting in Pediatric Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension
Edelbach et al (2025) noted that management of pediatric IIH presents significant challenges. While VSS has emerged as an effective minimally invasive therapy for adult IIH, its safety and effectiveness in the pediatric population is not well-studied. In a retrospective, case-series study, these investigators presented 3 cases of pediatric IIH refractory to medical management and treated with VSS. The 1st case, a 17-year-old female with a BMI of 57.06 kg/m2, CSF opening pressure of 38 cm H2O, and a pressure gradient of 15 mmHg across the venous sinus stenosis, presented with bilateral optic disc edema, visual deficits, and a worsening 3-day headache. The 2nd case, a 14-year-old female with a BMI of 34.2 kg/m2, CSF opening pressure of 28 cmH2O, and a pressure gradient of 12 mmHg across the venous sinus stenosis presented with bilateral optic disc edema, visual deficits, nausea, and headache. The 3rd case, a 12-year-old female with a BMI of 30.47 kg/m2, opening pressure of 39.5 cm H2O, and a pressure gradient of 7 mmHg across the venous sinus stenosis, presented with diplopia, headache, and ataxia. All 3 cases were managed medically with acetazolamide before VSS. All 3 patients showed symptomatic and visual improvement at 6 months follow-up and there were no major surgical complications noted in these patients. The authors concluded that while IIH is difficult to manage in the pediatric population, they reported successful implementation of VSS in the management of pediatric IIH. There were no major operative complications. Moreover, these researchers stated that further investigations are needed to determine the optimal dosing of post-operative anticoagulants in pediatric populations to reduce the risk of hemorrhagic side effects while still mitigating the risk of thrombosis.
References
The above policy is based on the following references:
- Barrero Ruiz E, Iglesias Morono S, Ros Lopez B, et al. Life-threatening idiopathic intracranial hypertension: The role of venous sinus stenting. Childs Nerv Syst. 2022;38(8):1433-1443.
- Bruce BB, Kedar S, Van Stavern GP, et al. Atypical idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Neurology. 2010;74(22):1827-1832.
- Edelbach B, Sharafeddin F, Hawy E, et al. Dural venous sinus stenting in pediatric refractory idiopathic intracranial hypertension: A case series and literature review. World Neurosurg. 2025 Jul 23 [Online ahead of print].
- Gorjian M, Andrada JE, Sitko KR. Dural venous sinus stenting technique for idiopathic intracranial hypertension in patients with tortuous venous anatomy. Neurosurg Rev. 2023;46(1):177.
- Hilvert AM, Gauhar F, Longo M, et al. Venous sinus stenting versus ventriculoperitoneal shunting: comparing clinical outcomes for idiopathic intracranial hypertension. J Neurointerv Surg. 2024;16(12):1264-1267.
- Intrapiromkul J, Rai AT, Lakhani DA. Transverse venous sinus stenting versus cerebrospinal fluid shunting in idiopathic intracranial hypertension: A multi-institutional and multinational database study. J Neurointerv Surg. 2025 Jun 27 [Online ahead of print].
- Kabanovski A, Kisilevsky E, Yang Y, Margolin E. Dural venous sinus stenting in the treatment of idiopathic intracranial hypertension: A systematic review and critique of literature. Surv Ophthalmol. 2022;67(1):271-287.
- Khunte M, Chen H, Colasurdo M, et al. National trends of cerebral venous sinus stenting for the treatment of idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Neurology. 2023;101(9):402-406.
- Mansour OY, Goma A, Mekky J, et al. Venous sinus stenting for idiopathic intracranial hypertension in the MENA region: Initial results from the VEHICLE Registry. Neurol Res. 2025 Jul 26 [Online ahead of print].
- Mugge L, Dang D, Curry B, et al. Superior ophthalmic vein flow patterns as a marker of venous sinus stenosis and hypertension in idiopathic intracranial hypertension: A case of emergent transverse sinus stenting as treatment of fulminant idiopathic intracranial hypertension. World Neurosurg. 2022;161:170-178.
- Nia AM, Srinivasan VM, Lall R, Kan P. Dural venous sinus stenting in idiopathic intracranial hypertension: A national database study of 541 patients. World Neurosurg. 2022;167:e451-e455.
- Pasol J, Peterson EC. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension induced cervical syringomyelia and cerebellar tonsillar ectopia reversed with venous sinus stenting. J Neuroophthalmol. 2024;45(3):e206-e207.
- Turpin J, White TG, Golub D, et al. Utilizing intravascular ultrasound for optimizing patient selection in venous sinus stenting: A pilot study. Interv Neuroradiol. 2025 Jun 30 [Online ahead of print].
- Turpin J, White TG, Toscano D, et al. The use of balloon guide catheters during venous sinus stenting: A case series. Interv Neuroradiol. 2024;30(6):796-803.
- Wall M, Lee AG. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri): Prognosis and treatment. UpToDate [online serial]. Waltham, MA: UpToDate; reviewed July 2023.
- Wang S, Tong X, Li X, et al. Association of post-intervention pressure gradient with symptom-free at 6 months in idiopathic intracranial hypertension with venous sinus stenosis treated by stenting. Interv Neuroradiol. 2022;29(4):413-418.
- Yang H, Raynald, Huo X, et al. The effects of pressure gradient on papilledema improvement after venous sinus stenting in idiopathic intracranial hypertension. J Endovasc Ther. 2025;32(2):467-474.
