Knee Arthroscopy / Osteoarthritis of the Knee
Number: 0673
Table Of Contents
PolicyApplicable CPT / HCPCS / ICD-10 Codes
Background
References
Policy
Scope of Policy
This Clinical Policy Bulletin addresses selected treatments for osteoarthritis of the knee (with or without meniscal tears). For Zilretta injectable for Medicare members, see Medicare Part B Criteria.
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Medical Necessity
Aetna considers the following medically necessary:
- Arthroscopic knee surgery (with or without partial meniscectomy or meniscal repair) for persons presenting with significant knee pain plus mechanical symptoms and no more than mild osteoarthritis (Kellgren-Lawrence 0, 1, or 2, or modified Outerbridge Grade 0, 1, or 2)Footnote1* with radiologic confirmation of the pathology (X-ray for loose bodies, MRI for meniscal tears and/or loose bodies), and failure of conservative therapy as noted belowFootnote2**;
- Arthroscopic partial meniscectomy or meniscal repair for traumatic meniscal tears with significant symptoms and no more than mild osteoarthritis (Kellgren-Lawrence 0, 1, or 2, or modified Outerbridge Grade 0, 1, or 2)Footnote1* and MRI confirmation of the meniscal pathology, and failure of conservative therapy as noted belowFootnote2**;
- Arthroscopic meniscal repair for the treatment of medial and/or lateral meniscal root tears for members who have significant symptoms, and have no more than mild osteoarthritis (Kellgren-Lawrence 0, 1, or 2, or modified Outerbridge Grade 0, 1, or 2)Footnote1*;
- Intra-articular glucocorticoid injections for the treatment of knee OA.
Footnote2** History of unsuccessful conservative therapy (non-surgical medical management with at least 6 weeks of formal physical therapy in the past year (in-person as opposed to home or virtual physical therapy). Physical therapy needs to be confirmed either by the actual PT notes, or by documentation in the member claims history; conservative treatment can be waived if the members knee is “locked” due to a displaced bucket handle tear of the meniscus.
Note: For purposes of this policy, Aetna will consider the official written report of complex imaging studies (e.g., CT, MRI). If the operating surgeon disagrees with the official written report, the surgeon should document that disagreement. The surgeon should discuss the disagreement with the provider who did the official interpretation, and there should also be a written addendum to the official report indicating agreement or disagreement with the operating surgeon.
Note: Meniscal repair should only be considered in situations where the vascular supply to the torn portion of the meniscus is adequate, and the meniscal tissue is not degenerated on imaging.
Note: Minor synovectomy (CPT code 29875) is considered integral to all other arthroscopic procedures of the knee. Major synovectomy (CPT code 29876) is only considered medically necessary when a disease of the synovium (e.g., pigmented villonodular synovitis, synovial osteochondromatosis) is identified pre-operatively.
Note: Chondroplasty/Debridement (CPT code 29877) is considered integral to all other arthroscopic procedures of the knee. As an isolated request, it is not medically necessary for minor chondral lesions, and not approvable for significant arthritis of the knee. Therefore, it cannot be approved on pre-certification request, but could be considered on a case-by-case basis post-operatively.Note: Diagnostic knee arthroscopy (CPT code 29870) is generally not considered medically necessary and not covered; knee arthroscopy is only considered medically necessary and covered for persons with radiologically proven pathology that meets the above criteria. However, if the radiologically proven pathology is not confirmed at surgery, diagnostic knee arthroscopy (CPT code 29870) may be billed and covered as medically necessary.
Aetna considers extended-release triamcinolone acetonide injectable suspension (Zilretta) not medically necessary because it has not demonstrated a significant improvement in osteoarthritis pain compared with the immediate-release formulation of triamcinolone acetonide.
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Experimental, Investigational, or Unproven
Aetna considers the following procedures experimental, investigational, or unproven because the effectiveness of these approaches has not been established:
- Meniscectomy (arthroscopic or open; total or partial) for the treatment of medial or lateral meniscal root tears;
- Medial knee implanted shock absorber (MISHA) for the management of knee OA, and subchondral insufficiency fractures of the knee;
- Sustained acoustic medicine (SAM) for the treatment of knee pain and for all other indications, including myofascial/soft tissue pain and injuries (including ankle, back, elbow, neck, and shoulder);
- The following interventions for the treatment of knee OA because the effectiveness of these approaches has not been established:
- Adipose cell-based therapies (e.g., autologous lipoaspirate)
- Advanced Arthritis Relief Protocol (which includes stem cell therapy)
- Arthroscopic debridement for persons with osteoarthritis presenting with knee pain only or with severe osteoarthritis (Outerbridge classification III or IVFootnote1*)
- Arthroscopic lavage
- Balneotherapy
- Bone marrow aspirate concentrate
- Combination of high tibial osteotomy and autologous bone marrow derived cell implantation
- Cryotherapy (e.g., Iovera cryoneurolysis)
- Extracorporeal shock wave therapy
- Genicular artery embolization
- Genicular nerve stimulation for the treatment of knee osteoarthritis
- High-intensity laser therapy
- Intra-articular application of autologous, fat-derived orthobiologics
- Intra-articular botulinum toxin injections
- Intra-articular injections of autologous conditioned serum
- Iovera cryoneurolysis for pain management before and after total knee arthroplasty
- Leukotape
- Microfracture/abrasion arthroplasty and xeno-matrix-induced chondrogenesis for the treatment of focal traumatic cartilage defects of the knee
- Patellar denervation
- Percutaneous autologous fat injections
- Percutaneous calcium phosphate injections
- Pulsed vibration therapy
- Radiofrequency ablation (RFA; including genicular nerve RFA)
- Stem cell therapy (e.g., intra-articular injections of adipose tissue-derived stem cells, bone marrow-derived mononuclear cell, infra-patellar fat pad-derived mesenchymal stem cell or pre-cartilaginous stem cells)
- Stromal vascular fraction injection
- Transcranial direct current stimulation
- Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TENS).
Footnote1*Note: The modified Outerbridge scale classifies the articular degeneration (depth of the lesion) of the knee in grades based on the MRI findings.
Kellgren and Lawrence System for Classification of Osteoarthritis (Based on Plain X-Ray Findings)
Grade 0 (none): Definite absence of X-ray changes of osteoarthritis
Grade 1 (doubtful): Doubtful joint space narrowing and possible osteophytic lipping
Grade 2 (minimal): Definite osteophytes and possible joint space narrowing
Grade 3 (moderate): Moderate multiple osteophytes, definite narrowing of joint space and some sclerosis and possible deformity of bone ends
Grade 4 (severe): Large osteophytes, marked narrowing of joint space, severe sclerosis and definite deformity of bone ends
Osteoarthritis is deemed present at Grade 2 although of minimal severity.
Modified Outerbridge Classification of Osteoarthritis
Grade 0: Normal (fissuring)
Grade 1: Abnormal signal (small lesion -- less than 1 cm)
Grade 2: Less than 50 % loss of thickness (moderate lesion -- less than 2 cm)
Grade 3: More than 50 % loss of thickness (large lesion -- greater than 2 cm)
Grade 4: Complete loss of thickness (diffuse lesion)
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Related Policies
- CPB 0009 - Orthopedic Casts, Braces and Splints
- CPB 0179 - Viscosupplementation
- CPB 0247 - Autologous Chondrocyte Implantation
- CPB 0364 - Allograft Transplants of the Extremities
- CPB 0545 - Electrothermal Arthroscopy
- CPB 0637 - Osteochondral Autografts (Mosaicplasty, OATS)
- CPB 0660 - Knee Arthroplasty
- CPB 0784 - Blood Product Injections for Selected Indications
Background
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a non-inflammatory degenerative joint disease that occurs mainly in middle-aged and older individuals. Osteoarthritis of the knee occurs when the elastoviscous properties of the synovial fluid in the knee joint becomes diminished, resulting in less protection and shock absorption. Osteoarthritis of the knee is often characterized by pain that frequently requires medical and/or surgical intervention. In general, the pain associated with OA develops gradually, although sudden onset is also possible. The joint may become stiff and swollen, making it difficult to bend or straighten the knee. Pain and swelling are worse in the morning or after a period of inactivity. Pain may also increase after activities such as walking, stair climbing or kneeling. The pain may often cause a feeling of weakness in the knee, resulting in a "locking" or "buckling". Many arthritic patients note that changes in the weather also affect the degree of pain from arthritis.
Based on the criteria of the American College of Rheumatology (Altman et al, 1986), a diagnosis of OA of the knee can be rendered if patients experience knee pain and at least 5 of the following:
- Bony enlargement
- Bony tenderness
- Crepitus (noisy, grating sound) on active motion
- Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) less than 40 mm/hour
- Less than 30 minutes of morning stiffness
- No palpable warmth of synovium
- Over 50 years of age
- Rheumatoid factor less than 1:40 titer (agglutination method)
- Synovial fluid signs.
- Grade I refers to softening or blistering of the articular cartilage,
- Grade II describes fragmentation or fissuring in an area less than 1 cm,
- Grade III describes fragmentation or fissuring in an area greater than 1 cm, and
- Grade IV refers to cartilage erosion down to the bone.
Treatment of mild symptomatic OA entails patient education, non-pharmacological approaches such as exercises, lifestyle modifications, and use of supportive devices, as well as pharmacotherapies including non-opioid oral and topical analgesics. In patients who are unresponsive to this regimen, the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) is appropriate. Intra-articular injections of steroids or viscosupplementation may be used for patients who fail conservative management. Patients with severe symptomatic OA of the knee may require surgical intervention, e.g., arthroscopic surgery, osteotomy, abrasion arthroplasty, subchondral penetration procedures, and laser/thermal chondroplasty.
Arthroscopy involves direct visualization of the joint by a video-fiberoptic device. Arthroscopic lavage and/or debridement is often recommended when medical therapy fails to reduce osteoarthritic knee pain and improve functioning. Lavage entails either large or small volume saline irrigation of the knee. Debridement covers many types of arthroscopic surgery and may include but is not limited to variable amounts of the following treatments: partial synovectomy, decompression and resection of plicae/adipose tissue, partial menisectomy, chondroplasty, loose body removal, and/or osteophyte removal. In clinical practice, debridement is generally performed with low volume lavage or washout. The available evidence supporting the use of arthroscopic surgery for the treatment of symptomatic OA of the knee is largely retrospective and lacks validated health-related quality-of-life measures. In this regard, the reports by Baumgaertner and colleagues (1990), Ogilvie-Harris and Fitsialos (1991), Yang and Nisonson (1995), as well as Jackson and Dieterichs (2003) were case series studies, while that by Fond et al (2002) was a cohort observational study.
- lavage, or
- debridement.
The primary outcome was objective evaluation of thigh muscle function in the affected quadriceps compared to that of the non-affected quadriceps before and after operation. There was some improvement in quadriceps isokinetic torque at 6 and 12 weeks after joint lavage but not after debridement. However, neither method significantly relieved patients' symptoms.
- intra-articular placebo (1.5 ml of 0.9 % normal saline),
- intra-articular corticosteroids (3.75 mg of cortivazol in 1.5 ml),
- joint lavage and intra-articular placebo, and
- joint lavage and intra-articular corticosteroid.
Outcome measures including severity of pain (100-mm visual analog scale [VAS]), global status (100-mm VAS), and Lequesne's functional index were evaluated at baseline, week 1, week 4, week 12, and week 24. There was no interaction between steroid injection and joint lavage. Patients who had undergone joint lavage had significantly improved pain VAS scores at week 24 (p < 0.020). In contrast, corticosteroid injection had no long-term effect (p < 0.313); corticosteroid injection was associated with a decrease in pain only at week 1 (p < 0.003) and week 4 (p < 0.020). However, there was no significant improvement in function at week 4 regardless of the assigned treatment as indexed by Lequesne's functional index.
- arthroscopic irrigation with 3,000 ml of saline (treatment group), or
- the minimal amount of irrigation (250 ml) needed to perform arthroscopy (placebo group).
The primary outcome variable was aggregate Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC) score. The study did not demonstrate an effect of irrigation on arthritis severity as measured by aggregate WOMAC scores, the primary outcome variable. The mean change in aggregate WOMAC score at 12 months was 15.5 (95 % confidence interval [CI]: 7.7 to 23.4) for the full irrigation group compared to 8.9 (95 % CI: 4.9 to 13.0) for the minimal irrigation group (p < 0.10).
In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled trial to determine whether a placebo effect might play a role in arthroscopic treatment of OA of the knee (Moseley et al, 1996), 5 subjects were randomized to a placebo arthroscopy group, 3 subjects were randomized to an arthroscopic lavage group, and 2 subjects were randomized to a standard arthroscopic debridement group. Patients who received the placebo surgery reported decreased frequency, intensity, and duration of knee pain. They also thought that the procedure was worthwhile and would recommend it to family and friends. Thus, there may be a significant placebo effect for arthroscopic treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee. The authors concluded that a larger study is needed to evaluate fully the effectiveness of an arthroscopic procedure for this condition. Recent evidence published in the New England Journal of Medicine (Moseley et al, 2002) confirms this earlier finding that arthroscopic lavage and/or debridement in patients with OA of the knee without other specific indications is no better than placebo surgery.
- arthroscopic debridement,
- arthroscopic lavage, or
- placebo surgery.
Patients in the placebo group received skin incisions and underwent a simulated debridement without insertion of the arthroscope. Patients and assessors of outcome were blinded to the treatment-group assignment. Outcomes were assessed at multiple points over a 24-month period with the use of 5 self-reported scores – 3 on scales for pain and 2 on scales for function – and 1 objective test of walking and stair climbing. A total of 165 patients completed the trial. At no point did either of the intervention groups report less pain or better function than the placebo group. For example, mean (+/- standard deviation [SD]) scores on the Knee-Specific Pain Scale (range of 0 to 100, with higher scores indicating more severe pain) were similar in the placebo, lavage, and debridement groups: 48.9 +/- 21.9, 54.8 +/- 19.8, and 51.7 +/- 22.4, respectively, at 1 year (p < 0.14 for the comparison between placebo and lavage; p < 0.51 for the comparison between placebo and debridement) and 51.6 +/- 23.7, 53.7 +/- 23.7, and 51.4 +/- 23.2, respectively, at 2 years (p < 0.64 and p < 0.96, respectively). Furthermore, the 95 % CIs for the differences between the placebo group and the intervention groups exclude any clinically meaningful difference. These researchers concluded that for patients with OA of the knee, the outcomes after arthroscopic lavage or arthroscopic debridement were no better than those after a placebo procedure.
In view of the findings of Moseley and associates, advocates of arthroscopic lavage and debridement suggest that may be these procedures are effective in subgroups of patients with knee OA including those at the early stages of OA, those with normal alignment as well as those with mechanical symptoms. However, Moseley and co-workers stated that they have performed an extensive subgroup analysis and did not find any differences to support the claim that outcomes of arthroscopic surgery for OA of the knee may be related to the severity of arthritis or alignment (Wray et al, 2002).
In a sham-controlled, randomized, double-blinded study, Bradley et al (2002) evaluated the effectiveness of tidal irrigation (TI) in comparison with a well-matched sham irrigation (SI) procedure as a treatment for OA of the knee. A total of 180 patients with knee OA were randomized to receive TI or SI, with clinical follow-up over the ensuing 12 months. The primary outcomes of interest were changes in pain and function, as measured by the WOMAC. Patients and the nurse assessor were blinded, and success of blinding was assessed. Although the study groups were otherwise comparable, the baseline WOMAC pain and physical functioning scores were higher (worse) in the SI group. After adjustment for baseline, there were no differences between the effects of SI and TI. Blinding was successful with approximately 90 % of SI and TI patients stating that they had received the TI procedure. The authors concluded that the improvement of these patients with knee OA following TI was due to a placebo effect.
Dervin and colleagues (2003) prospectively evaluated a cohort of patients (n = 126) with OA of the knee who were selected for arthroscopic debridement and determined which clinical criteria favor a sustained improvement in health-related quality of life after 2 years of follow-up. These researchers found that the prospectively evaluated quality-of-life benefit from arthroscopic debridement of the osteoarthritic knee is less than that reported in previous retrospective surveys on satisfaction. Additionally, clinical variables were only partially helpful for predicting a successful result after arthroscopic debridement.
The American College of Rheumatology (ACR) (2000) guidelines on OA of the hip and knee has concluded that “[n]o well-controlled trials of arthroscopic debridement with or without arthroplasty have been conducted, and the utility of this intervention for the treatment of knee osteoarthritis is unproven.” The ACR guidelines state that routine arthroscopic lavage with or without debridement should not be routinely recommended to patients with knee OA who have failed medical therapy. Arthroscopic removal of debris may, however, be useful for relief of pain and improvement in joint function in patients with mechanical symptoms due to loose bodies and meniscal tears. However, further studies in these types of patients are needed.
An assessment of arthroscopic lavage for knee osteoarthritis conducted by the Wessex Institute for Health Research and Development (Algood, 2002) summarized the evidence on arthroscopic lavage and debridement for osteoarthritis: "We found evidence from one good quality RCT [randomized controlled trial] that arthroscopic debridement or lavage did not improve patient reported pain and function at 2 years compared with sham arthroscopy for men with osteoarthritis of the knee. Two other, weaker, RCTs found that debridement and lavage did not improve symptoms compared with non-arthroscopic lavage. Another RCT found that arthroscopic lavage with 3,000 ml saline slightly improved pain compared with arthroscopic lavage with 250 ml saline. Another RCT found that arthroscopic debridement improved pain relief compared with arthroscopic lavage in people with isolated degenerative disease on the medial femoral condyle. We found no evidence that arthroscopic debridement or lavage improves symptoms compared with non-arthroscopic treatments."
In the Patient-Oriented Evidence that Matters (POEMs) of the Journal of Family Practice, Bailey (2002) stated that arthroscopy does not provide any benefit over sham surgery in reducing pain or physical functioning of patients with knee OA. In the Interpreting Key Trials section of the Cleveland clinic Journal of Medicine, Bernstein and Quach (2003) stated that the value of arthroscopy in treating patients with arthritic joints must be proved. Furthermore, in the American College of Physicians Journal Club, Gillespie (2003) stated that the study by Moseley et al (2002) made a case for questioning the value of arthroscopic lavage and debridement in active men younger than 65 years of age with OA of the knee. In addition, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (2003) will be issuing a national non-coverage determination stating that arthroscopic lavage alone is not reasonable and necessary for patients with OA of the knee; and that arthroscopic debridement is not reasonable and necessary for patients presenting with knee pain only or with severe OA (Outerbridge classification III or IV).
An assessment of arthroscopic lavage and debridement by the Medical Advisory Secretariat of the Ontario Ministry of Health and Long-term Care (2005) concluded: "Arthroscopic debridement of the knee has thus far only been found to be effective for medial compartmental OA. All other indications should be reviewed with a view to reducing arthroscopic debridement as an effective therapy. Arthroscopic lavage of the knee is not indicated for any stage of OA. There is very poor quality evidence on the effectiveness of debridement with partial meniscectomy in the case of meniscal tears in OA of the knee."
A randomized study by Kirkley et al (2008) published in the New England Journal of Medicine found that arthroscopic lavage and debridement for OA of the knee provided no additional benefit to optimized physical and medical therapy. The investigators conducted a single-center, randomized, controlled trial of arthroscopic surgery in patients with moderate-to-severe OA of the knee. Patients were randomly assigned to surgical lavage and arthroscopic debridement together with optimized physical and medical therapy or to treatment with physical and medical therapy alone. The primary outcome was the total Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC) score at 2 years of follow-up. Secondary outcomes included the Short Form-36 (SF-36) Physical Component Summary score. Of the 92 patients assigned to surgery, 6 did not undergo surgery. Of the 86 patients assigned to control treatment, all received only physical and medical therapy. After 2 years, there were no statistically significant differences in WOMAC scores or the SF-36 Physical Component Summary scores for the surgery group as compared with the control group. Analyses of WOMAC scores at interim visits and other secondary outcomes also failed to show superiority of surgery.
An accompanying study published in the New England Journal of Medicine found that incidental meniscal findings on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the knee are common in the general population and increase with increasing age (Englund et al, 2008). MRI of the knee is often performed in patients who have knee symptoms of unclear cause. When meniscal tears are found, it is commonly assumed that the symptoms are attributable to them. However, there is a paucity of data regarding the prevalence of meniscal damage in the general population and the association of meniscal tears with knee symptoms and with radiographical evidence of osteoarthritis. Englund et al (2008) studied persons from Framingham, Massachusetts, who were drawn from census-tract data and random-digit telephone dialing. Subjects were 50 to 90 years of age and ambulatory; selection was not made on the basis of knee or other joint problems. The investigators assessed the integrity of the menisci in the right knee on 1.5-tesla MRI scans obtained from 991 subjects (57 % of whom were women). Symptoms involving the right knee were evaluated by questionnaire. The investigators found that the prevalence of a meniscal tear or of meniscal destruction in the right knee as detected on MRI ranged from 19 % among women 50 to 59 years of age to 56 % among men 70 to 90 years of age; prevalences were not materially lower when subjects who had had previous knee surgery were excluded. Among persons with radiographical evidence of OA, the prevalence of a meniscal tear was 63 % among those with knee pain, aching, or stiffness on most days and 60 % among those without these symptoms. The corresponding prevalences among persons without radiographical evidence of OA were 32 % and 23 %. Sixty-one percent of the subjects who had meniscal tears in their knees had not had any pain, aching, or stiffness during the previous month.
An accompanying editorial by Marx (2008) in the New England Journal of Medicine concluded that the study by Kirkley et al (2008), combined with other evidence, indicates that OA of the knee (in the absence of a history and physical examination suggesting meniscal or other findings) is not an indication for arthroscopic surgery and indeed has been associated with inferior outcomes after arthroscopic knee surgery. The editorialist stated, however, that OA is not a contraindication to arthroscopic surgery, and arthroscopic surgery remains appropriate in patients with arthritis in specific situations in which OA is not believed to be the primary cause of pain.
- intra-articular viscosupplementation,
- oral glucosamine, chondroitin or the combination, and
- arthroscopic lavage or debridement,
Samson et al (2007) concluded that these 3 interventions are widely used in the treatment of OA of the knee, yet the best available evidence does not clearly demonstrate clinical benefit. Uncertainty regarding clinical benefit can be resolved only by rigorous, multi-center randomized controlled trials. Furthermore, a Cochrane review on arthroscopic debridement for knee OA, Laupattarakasem et al (2008) concluded that there is "gold" level evidence that arthroscopic debridement has no benefit for un-discriminated OA (mechanical or inflammatory causes).
In a review on surgical options for patients with OA of the knee, Lützner and colleagues(2009) stated that surgical treatments for knee OA include arthroscopy, osteotomy and knee arthroplasty; determining which of these procedures is most appropriate will depend on several factors, including the location and severity of OA damage, patient characteristics and risk factors. Arthroscopic lavage and debridement do not alter disease progression, and should not be used as a routine treatment for the osteoarthritic knee.
The American Association of Orthopaedic Surgeons’ clinical practice guideline on the treatment of OA of the knee (AAOS, 2008) does not recommend performing arthroscopy with debridement or lavage. Furthermore, it does not recommend performing needle lavage. Also, a recent Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality's (AHRQ, 2009) report summarized the evidence on the safety and effectiveness of 3 treatments for OA of the knee:
- use of the supplements glucosamine hydrochloride, chondroitin sulfate, or combination of both;
- viscosupplementation; and
- arthroscopic lavage and debridement of the knee joint.
The evidence evaluated comes mainly from comparisons of each therapeutic approach with a placebo. The AHRQ guideline concluded that glucosamine and chondroitin, viscosupplementation, as well as arthroscopic lavage with or without debridement do not lead to clinically meaningful improvement.
In a Cochrane review, Reichenbach and colleagues (2010) compared joint lavage with sham intervention, placebo or non-intervention control in terms of effects on pain, function and safety outcomes in patients with knee OAs. These investigators searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, and CINAHL up to August 3, 2009, checked conference proceedings, reference lists, and contacted authors. They included studies if they were randomized or quasi-randomized trials that compared arthroscopic and non-arthroscopic joint lavage with a control intervention in patients with OA of the knee. Two independent review authors extracted data using standardized forms. They contacted investigators to obtain missing outcome information, and calculated standardized mean differences (SMDs) for pain and function, and risk ratios for safety outcomes. They combined trials using inverse-variance random-effects meta-analysis. These researchers included 7 trials with 567 patients; 3 trials examined arthroscopic joint lavage, 2 non-arthroscopic joint lavage and 2 tidal irrigation. The methodological quality and the quality of reporting was poor and these investigators identified a moderate-to-large degree of heterogeneity among the trials (I(2) = 65 %). They found little evidence for a benefit of joint lavage in terms of pain relief at 3 months (SMD -0.11, 95 % CI: -0.42 to 0.21), corresponding to a difference in pain scores between joint lavage and control of 0.3 cm on a 10-cm VAS. Results for improvement in function at 3 months were similar (SMD -0.10, 95 % CI: -0.30 to 0.11), corresponding to a difference in function scores between joint lavage and control of 0.2 cm on a WOMAC disability sub-scale from 0 to 10. For pain, estimates of effect sizes varied to some degree depending on the type of lavage, but this variation was likely to be explained by differences in the credibility of control interventions: trials using sham interventions to closely mimic the process of joint lavage showed a null-effect. Reporting on adverse events and drop-out rates was unsatisfactory, and they were unable to draw conclusions for these secondary outcomes. The authors concluded that joint lavage does not result in a relevant benefit for patients with knee OA in terms of pain relief or improvement of function.
Ronn et al (2011) noted that OA of the knee is common, and the chances of suffering from OA increase with age. Its treatment should be initially non-operative-and requires both pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment modalities. If conservative therapy fails, surgery should be considered. Surgical treatments for knee OA include arthroscopy, cartilage repair, osteotomy, and knee arthroplasty. Determining which of these procedures is most appropriate depends on several factors, including the location, stage of OA, co-morbidities on the one side and patients suffering on the other side. Arthroscopic lavage and debridement is often carried out, but does not alter disease progression. If OA is limited to one compartment, uni-compartmental knee arthroplasty or unloading osteotomy can be considered. They are recommended in young and active patients in regard to the risks and limited durability of total knee replacement. Total arthroplasty of the knee is a common and safe method in the elderly patients with advanced knee OA.
The effectiveness of arthroscopic partial meniscectomy for torn meniscus is unknown. Arthroscopic partial meniscectomy is performed in patients with symptomatic osteoarthritis of the knee who also have primary signs and symptoms of a torn meniscus. Guidelines from the AAOS stated: "We are unable to recommend for or against arthroscopic partial meniscectomy in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee with a torn meniscus". The AAOS identified only a single study of arthroscopic partial meniscectomy that met criteria for inclusion in their analysis. The study, by Herrlin et al (2007), compared arthroscopic partial meniscectomy followed by supervised exercise to supervised exercise alone and measured Knee injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS) pain, symptoms, activities of daily life, sports/recreation, and quality of life subscales scores as outcomes. The study was downgraded from moderate- to low-strength because 40 % of patients declined participation and the arthroscopic group had non-homogeneous preoperative KOOS scores. The authors reported no significant treatment benefits of meniscectomy using any of the outcomes at 8 weeks and 6 months. Since there was only one low-strength study, the AAOS recommendation was graded inconclusive.
Additional studies of arthroscopic partial meniscectomy have been published since the AAOS guideline that have found no benefit to arthroscopic partial meniscectomy for torn meniscus. Sihvonen and colleagues (2013) conducted a multi-center, randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled trial in 146 patients 35 to 65 years of age who had knee symptoms consistent with a degenerative medial meniscus tear and no knee osteoarthritis. Patients were randomly assigned to arthroscopic partial meniscectomy or sham surgery. The primary outcomes were changes in the Lysholm and Western Ontario Meniscal Evaluation Tool (WOMET) scores (each ranging from 0 to 100, with lower scores indicating more severe symptoms) and in knee pain after exercise (rated on a scale from 0 to 10, with 0 denoting no pain) at 12 months after the procedure. The investigators reported that, in the intention-to-treat analysis, there were no significant between-group differences in the change from baseline to 12 months in any primary outcome. The mean changes (improvements) in the primary outcome measures were as follows: Lysholm score, 21.7 points in the partial-meniscectomy group as compared with 23.3 points in the sham-surgery group (between-group difference, -1.6 points; 95 % CI: -7.2 to 4.0); WOMET score, 24.6 and 27.1 points, respectively (between-group difference, -2.5 points; 95 % CI: -9.2 to 4.1); and score for knee pain after exercise, 3.1 and 3.3 points, respectively (between-group difference, -0.1; 95 % CI: -0.9 to 0.7). The investigators reported that there were no significant differences between groups in the number of patients who required subsequent knee surgery (2 in the partial-meniscectomy group and 5 in the sham-surgery group) or serious adverse events (1 and 0, respectively).
Katz et al (2013) conducted a multi-center, randomized, controlled trial involving symptomatic patients 45 years of age or older with a meniscal tear and evidence of mild-to-moderate osteoarthritis on imaging. The investigators randomly assigned 351 patients to surgery and post-operative physical therapy or to a standardized physical-therapy regimen (with the option to cross-over to surgery at the discretion of the patient and surgeon). The patients were evaluated at 6 and 12 months. The primary outcome was the difference between the groups with respect to the change in the WOMAC physical-function score (ranging from 0 to 100, with higher scores indicating more severe symptoms) 6 months after randomization. In the intention-to-treat analysis, the mean improvement in the WOMAC score after 6 months was 20.9 points (95 % CI: 17.9 to 23.9) in the surgical group and 18.5 (95 % CI: 15.6 to 21.5) in the physical-therapy group (mean difference, 2.4 points; 95 % CI: -1.8 to 6.5). At 6 months, 51 active participants in the study who were assigned to physical therapy alone (30 %) had undergone surgery, and 9 patients assigned to surgery (6 %) had not undergone surgery. The results at 12 months were similar to those at 6 months. The frequency of adverse events did not differ significantly between the groups.
Patello-Femoral Replacement (Arthroplasty)
Lonner (2007) stated that patella-femoral arthroplasty (PFA) can be an effective intermediate treatment for the patient with isolated arthritis of the anterior compartment of the knee. In the absence of patellar mal-alignment, results were optimized when an implant with sound geometric features was used, the prosthesis was appropriately aligned, and the soft tissues were balanced. Although previous prosthesis designs resulted in a relatively high prevalence of failure because of PF mal-tracking, PF catching, and anterior knee pain (AKP), newer prosthesis designs showed promise in reducing the prevalence of PF dysfunction. Progressive tibio-femoral cartilage degeneration was another so-called failure mechanism; such progressive degeneration underscored the importance of restricting the procedure to patients who do not have tibio-femoral chondromalacia. Because long-term failure as a result of tibio-femoral degeneration may occur in approximately 25 % of patients, PFA may be considered an intermediate procedure for select patients with PF arthritis.
Ackroyd et al (2007) reported the mid-term results of a new PFA for established isolated PF arthritis. These researchers reviewed the experience of 109 consecutive PF resurfacing arthroplasties in 85 patients who were followed-up for at least 5 years. The 5-year survival rate, with revision as the end-point, was 95.8 % (95 % CI: 91.8 % to 99.8 %). There were no cases of loosening of the prosthesis. At 5 years the median Bristol pain score improved from 15 of 40 points (interquartile range [IQR] of 5 to 20) pre-operatively, to 35 (IQR of 20 to 40), the median Melbourne score from 10 of 30 points (IQR of 6 to 15) to 25 (IQR of 20 to 29), and the median Oxford score from 18 of 48 points (IQR of 13 to 24) to 39 (IQR of 24 to 45). Successful results, judged on a Bristol pain score of at least 20 at 5 years, occurred in 80 % (66) of knees. The main complication was radiological progression of arthritis, which occurred in 25 patients (28 %) and emphasized the importance of the careful selection of patients. The authors concluded that these results gave increased confidence in the use of PFA. However, this study only provided mid-term results (5 years); and radiological progression of arthritis occurred in 28 % of patients; long-term results are needed.
Luring et al (2011) stated that isolated OA of the PF joint occurs in 9 % of patients over 40 years of age and women are more often affected. Options of treatment were varied and not sufficiently justified by the literature. These investigators performed a literature research with keywords in the field of femoro-patellar OA in the relevant databases. Studies were categorized into different treatment options and analyzed. There are almost no Level I studies comparing the different treatment options. In the literature there are indications that relief of pain can be achieved by conservative treatment, arthroscopic surgery, cartilage conserving surgery and isolated arthroplasty. The authors concluded that in view of the fact that there are almost no prospective RCTs, none of the options for treatment can be highly recommended. They stated that there is still no gold standard for the treatment of isolated patella-femoral OA.
Davies (2013) noted that unicompartmental PFAs are uncommon; however numbers are increasing and there are a variety of new prostheses available. The Femoro-Patella Vialla (FPV, Wright Medical, UK) device was the second most commonly used PF unicompartmental prosthesis in the 2012 British National Joint Register. There are however no published outcomes data for this device. In this study, a total of 52 consecutive cases were studied prospectively using Oxford Knee Score and American Knee Society (AKS) Scores pre-operatively and at follow-up to a minimum of 2 years. Overall, Oxford Knee Scores improved from 30 points pre-operatively (36.6 %) to 19 points (60 %) at 1-year. American Knee Society Knee scores improved from 51 points pre-operatively to 81 points at 1-year. Functional scores improved from 42 points pre-operatively to 70 points at 1-year. Moreover, 13 (25 %) patients had an excellent outcome with pain abolished and near normal knee function; 11 (21 %) patients gained very little improvement and scored their knees similar or worse to their pre-operative state. There were no infective or thrombo-embolic complications. Seven cases have been revised to a total knee replacement (TKR) for on-going pain in 6 cases and progression of arthritis in the tibio-femoral compartments in 1 case. The patellar button was found to be very poorly fixed in all cases that were revised. The authors concluded that early results with the FPV prosthesis showed that successful outcomes can be achieved; however the results were unpredictable and a significant minority of patients had on-going symptoms that they found unacceptable. They stated that the early revision rate was high in this series.
Al-Hadithy et al (2014) stated that isolated PF joint OA affects approximately 10 % of patients aged over 40 years and treatment remains controversial. The FPV PF joint replacement has been shown to restore functional kinematics of the knee close to normal. Despite its increasing popularity in recent years, there are no studies evaluating the mid-term results with an objective scoring assessment. These investigators reported the clinical and radiological outcomes of FPV PF joint replacement in patients with isolated PF arthritis. Between 2006 and 2012, these researchers performed 53 consecutive FPV PFAs in 41 patients with isolated PFl joint OA. The mean follow-up was 3 years. Mean Oxford Knee Scores improved from 19.7 to 37.7 at latest follow-up. The progression of tibio-femoral OA was seen 12 % of knees. Two knees required revision to TKR at 7 months post-operatively, which these investigators attributed to poor patient selection. There were no cases of mal-tracking patellae, and no lateral releases were performed. The authors concluded that these findings suggested the FPV PFl prosthesis provided good pain relief and survivorship with no significant mal-tracking patellae. This was a relatively small study (n = 41 patients) with mid-term results. These findings need to be validated by well-designed studies with larger sample size and long-term follow-up.
Lustig (2014) noted that PFA remains controversial, primarily due to the high failure rates reported with early implants. Several case series have been published over the years, which described the results with various first- and second-generation implants. These researchers summarized results published up to now and identified common themes for implants, surgical techniques, and indications. First-generation resurfacing implants had relatively high failure rates in the medium-term. Second-generation implants, with femoral cuts based on total knee arthroplasty (TKA) designs, have yielded more promising medium-term results. The surgical indications were quite specific and must be chosen carefully to minimize poor results. Short-term complications were generally related to patellar mal-tracking, while long-term complications were generally related to progression of OA in the tibio-femoral joint. Implant loosening and polyethylene wear were rare. The author concluded that recent improvements in implant design and surgical techniques have resulted in better short- and medium-term results; however, more work is needed to evaluate the long-term outcomes of modern implant designs.
King et al (2015) reported the incidence of patellar fracture after PFA and determined associated factors as well as outcomes of patients with and without this complication. A total of 77 knees in 59 patients with minimum 2-year follow-up were included. Seven (9.1 %) patients experienced a patellar fracture at a mean of 34 (range of 16 to 64) months post-operatively. All were treated non-operatively. Lower body mass index (BMI; p = 0.03), change in patellar thickness (p < 0.001), amount of bone resected (p = 0.001), and larger trochlear component size (p = 0.01) were associated with a greater incidence of fracture. Fewer fractures occurred when the post-operative patellar height exceeded the pre-operatively measured height. No statistically significant differences were found in outcome scores between groups at mean 4-year follow-up. It should be noted that a fair amount of fractures at mid-term; and it is unclear if the incidence would increase at long-term.
Dy et al (2012) concluded that patients who undergo PFA rather than TKA are more likely to experience complications and require re-operation or revision, however, subgroup analysis suggested a relation to implant design. There was no significant difference in re-operation, revision, pain, or mechanical complications between 2G-PFA and TKA. Level of Evidence = III.
Lonner et al (2013) noted that PFA)has a long record of use in the treatment of isolated patellofemoral arthritis, with outcomes influenced by patient selection, surgical technique, and trochlear implant design. The trochlear components have evolved from inlay-style to onlay-style designs, which have reduced the incidence of patellar instability. Minimizing the risk of patellar instability with onlay-design PFAs has enhanced mid-term and long-term results and leaves progressive tibiofemoral arthritis as the primary failure mechanism beyond 10 to 15 years. Moreover, the authors stated that several studies have reported successful results ofTKA for isolated anterior compartment arthritis, with good mid-term results in up to 90 % of patients. One retrospective study compared outcomes in 45 patients undergoing PFA or TKA at mean of 2.5 years of follow-up. They found similar Knee Society and pain scores, but the PFA group had significantly higher activity scores. However, high-quality comparisons of PFA to other treatments, including TKA, for isolated patellofemoral arthritis have not been reported to-date. One ongoing RCT is currently evaluating PFA compared with TKA in this scenario and is expected to report results in 2013.
Kazarian et al (2016) reviewed the clinical and radiographic outcomes of a consecutive series of patients who underwent PFA using a modern onlay-style trochlear design and all-polyethylene patellar component. An additional goal of the study was to elucidate, for the first time, the extent to which patients were satisfied with their implant and whether expectations were met after undergoing PFA. These researchers identified a consecutive series of 70 knees (53 patients) treated with primary isolated PFA between October 2007 and May 2012. For the clinical outcomes analysis, these investigators included patients with a minimum follow-up of 2 years and available pre-operative original Knee Society scores. At an average 4.9 years of follow-up, the mean ROM and Knee Society Knee and Function scores improved significantly, and less than 4 % of patients required revision arthroplasty. There was no radiographic evidence of component loosening or wear. Despite these improvements, new Knee Society scores indicated that fewer than 2/3 of patients were satisfied or had their expectations met. Dissatisfied patients and those whose expectations were not met had significantly lower Mental Health scores according to the Short Form-36 following PFA. The authors concluded that despite the clinical and radiographic success of this implant, patient satisfaction remained low, which may be partially explained by poor mental health.
The authors stated that this study had several drawbacks. These researchers did not have complete data for all patients, which may have impacted the results and skewed the data. Because the study took place before the conception, validation, and publication of the new KSS, these investigators did not have pre-operative new KSS data for their patients and were, therefore, unable to fully compare pre-operative and post-operative discretionary and functional activity levels. The authors were prospectively tracking these data as of 2012 when they began using the new KSS in their practice to further elucidate the value of PFA. An additional drawback of this study was that there was no control group with isolated patellofemoral arthritis treated with TKA. By comparing the results of this control to satisfaction results after TKA from published studies, they could determine if dissatisfaction after surgical intervention for patellofemoral arthritis was due to the unique OA pattern of this disease or due to the PFA procedure itself, as well as whether patients with isolated patellofemoral arthritis would be any more satisfied if treated with TKA. Finally, future studies could more closely analyze post-operative function of the patellofemoral joint by using assessments of stair ascending and descending as well as patellofemoral scoring measures.
Konan and Haddad (2016) concluded that the study showed good mid-term results (mean of 7.1 years; range of 5 to 11 years) for Avon PFJ system in post-traumatic patella-femoral joint osteoarthritis (PFJOA) in a relatively young patient cohort (n = 47; average age of 57 years. The authors stated that this study had several drawbacks. This study reported a consecutive series of patients who presented to the senior author and were diagnosed with isolated PFJOA on history, examination, and radiographic findings. Patients with any evidence of tibio-femoral OA were not included in this study. There was no comparison group. However, these researchers had only 2 revisions in this cohort and no loss to follow-up in the first 5 years. It was possible that careful selection of patients had resulted in only 1 of the study patients showing progression of tibio-femoral OA or revision. This was a relatively small (n = 47) study with mid-term follow-up (7.1 years).
van der List et al (2017) noted that historically poor results of PFA were reported in the setting of isolated patellofemoral osteoarthritis (PFOA). In order to lower PFA failure rates, it is important to identify failure modes using a standardized method. In this systematic review, PFA failure modes were assessed and compared in early versus late failures and older versus recent studies. Databases of PubMed, Embase and Cochrane and annual registries were searched for studies reporting PFA failures. Failure modes in studies with mean follow-up of less than 5 years were classified as early failures while greater than 5 years were classified late failures. Cohorts started before 2000 were classified as older studies and started after 2000 as recent studies. A total of 39 cohort studies (10 level II and 29 level III or IV studies) and 3 registries were included with overall low quality of studies (Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation [GRADE] criteria). A total of 938 PFA failures were included and were caused by OA progression (38 %), pain (16 %), aseptic loosening (14 %) and patellar mal-tracking (10 %). Pain was responsible for most early failures (31 %), while OA progression was most common in late failures (46 %). In older studies, OA progression was more commonly reported as failure mode than in more recent studies (53 % versus 39 %, p = 0.005). The authors concluded that this level IV systematic review with low quality of studies identified OA progression and pain as major failure modes. Reviewing these studies, appropriate patient selection could prevent PFA failures in select cases. Moreover, these researchers stated that future studies assessing the role of PFA in isolated PFOA are needed.
Pisanu et al (2017) noted that PFOA can be associated with anterior knee pain, stiffness, and functional impairment. Some authors reported that PFOA affects approximately 9 % of patients older than 40 years with a greater prevalence in women. Etiology of PFOA is multi-factorial and is related to the presence of abnormal stresses at the PF joint due to knee- and patient-related factors. The need for a joint preserving treatment by isolated replacement of the injured compartment of the knee led to the development of PFA. When a correct PF replacement is performed, PFA preserves physiologic tibio-femoral joint, thus allowing patients for a rapid recovery with a high satisfaction. The outcomes for PFA were quite variable with a trend toward good-to-excellent results, mainly owing to the improvement in surgical techniques, patient selection, and implant design. The development of the second generation of PFA improved the outcomes, which was attributed to the different trochlear designs. Recently, encouraging results have been provided by the association of PFA and uni-compartmental knee arthroplasty (UKA). In many studies, the main cause of PFA failure is progression of tibio-femoral OA. The authors concluded that PFA has shown to be a viable option for the treatment of isolated PFOA. The ideal candidate for a PFA is a middle-aged woman with PFOA not responsive to the conservative treatment and without significant malalignment or tibio-femoral OA. Modern PFA design onlay style, strict patient selection, and improvement in surgical techniques have produced satisfactory results in the past decades in short- to mid-term follow-up, with 10-years of survivorship of almost 90 %. The main cause of failure of second-generation PFA is progression of tibio-femoral OA. However, the introduction of the association of PFA and UKA may reduce the need for revision to TKA due to tibio-femoral OA progression. These researchers stated that despite the good mid-term outcomes after PFA, future research is needed to evaluate the long-term results of the second-generation PFA, and eventually, the efficacy of combination of PFA and UKA in comparison with TKA.
Odgaard et al (2018) stated that controversy exists over the surgical treatment for severe PFOA. These investigators compared the outcome of PFA with TKA in a blinded RCT. In the first 2 years after surgery: Does the overall gain in quality of life (QOL) differ between the implants based on the area under the curve of patient-reported outcomes (PROs) versus time? Do patients obtain a better QOL at specific points in time after PFA than after TKA? Do patients get a better range of movement (ROM) after PFA than after TKA? Does PFA result in more complications than TKA? Patients were eligible if they had debilitating symptoms and isolated patellofemoral disease. A total of 100 patients were included from 2007 to 2014 and were randomized to PFA or TKA (blinded for the first year; blinded to patient, therapists, primary care physicians, etc.; quasi-blinded to assessor). Patients were observed for 4 clinical follow-ups and completed 6 sets of questionnaires during the first 2 post-operative years. SF-36 bodily pain was the primary outcome. Other outcomes were ROM, PROs (SF-36, Oxford Knee Score [OKS], Knee injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score [KOOS]) as well as complications and revisions; 4 % (2 of 50) of patients died within the first 2 years in the PFA group (none in the TKA group), and 2 % (1 of 50) became ill and declined further participation after 1 year in the PFA group (none in the TKA group). The mean age at inclusion was 64 years (SD 8.9), and 77 % (77 of 100) were women. The area under the curve (AUC) up to 2 years for SF-36 bodily pain of patients undergoing PFA and those undergoing TKA was 9.2 (SD 4.3) and 6.5 (SD 4.5) months, respectively (p = 0.008). The SF-36 physical functioning, KOOS symptoms, and OKS also showed a better AUC up to 2 years for PFA compared with TKA (6.6 [SD 4.8] versus 4.2 [SD 4.3] months, p = 0.028; 5.6 [SD 4.1] versus 2.8 [SD 4.5] months, p = 0.006; 7.5 [SD 2.7] versus 5.0 [SD 3.6] months, p = 0.001; respectively). The SF-36 bodily pain improvement at 6 months for patients undergoing PFA and those undergoing TKA was 38 (SD 24) and 27 (SD 23), respectively (p = 0.041), and at 2 years, the improvement was 39 (SD 24) and 33 (SD 22), respectively (p = 0.199). The KOOS symptoms improvement at 6 months for patients undergoing PFA and those undergoing TKA was 24 (SD 20) and 7 (SD 21), respectively (p < 0.001), and at 2 years, the improvement was 27 (SD 19) and 17 (SD 21), respectively (p = 0.023). Improvements from baseline for KOOS pain, SF-36 physical functioning, and OKS also differed in favor of PFA at 6 months, whereas only KOOS symptoms showed a difference between the groups at 2 years. No PRO dimension showed a difference in favor of TKA. At 4 months, 1 year, and 2 years, the ROM change from baseline for patients undergoing PFA and those undergoing TKA was (-7° [SD 13°] versus -18° [SD 14°], p < 0.001; -4° [SD 15°] versus -11° [SD 12°], p = 0.011; and -3° [SD 12°] versus -10° [SD 12°], p = 0.010). There was no difference in the number of complications. During the first 2 post-operative years, there were 2 revisions in patients undergoing PFA (1 to a new PFA and 1 to a TKA). The authors concluded that patients undergoing PFA obtained a better overall knee-specific QOL than patients undergoing TKA throughout the first 2 years after operation for isolated PFOA. At 2 years, only KOOS function differed between patients undergoing PFA and those undergoing TKA, whereas other PRO dimensions did not show a difference between groups. The observations could be explained by patients undergoing PFA recovering faster than patients undergoing TKA and the functional outcome being better for patients undergoing PFA up to 9 months. Patients undergoing PFA regain their pre-operative ROM, whereas patients undergoing TKA at 2 years have lost 10° of ROM. These researchers found no differences in complications. Moreover, the authors stated that TKA historically has been preferred over PFA as the surgical treatment of choice for patients with severe and isolated patellofemoral arthritis, and register data have been used in support of this practice. However, data with contemporary PFA implants suggested that it may represent a durable solution and perhaps one that has advantages over TKA, but to the authors' knowledge, this has not been evaluated in a randomized trial. They noted that based on the 2-year results of this blinded randomized study, they suggested that PFA rather than TKA should be performed in cases of debilitating isolated PFOA. Patients undergoing PFA enjoy a higher knee-related QOL and ROM than patients undergoing TKA during the first 2 post-operative years. The results challenge register data, and if the results remain favorable over longer term follow-up, they should result in a shift in implant selection from TKA to PFA in patients with isolated patellofemoral arthritis.
This study had several drawbacks. It reported on the 2-year results only, because data for longer follow-up are incomplete. If one of the groups should show unwanted results as the follow-up period increases, any change will have to be balanced against any advantages or disadvantages observed earlier. The authors found it reasonable to use the AUC (the integral) of the PROs as an overall measure of the health benefit obtained by the patient. It was difficult to achieve perfect double-blinding in a surgical trial. However, they believed that the distribution of patients’ guesses about which implant they may have had demonstrated that the patient blinding was effective. It was difficult to ascertain if the assessor blinding was effective, but the authors had no reason to suspect that the assessors obtained information about the implants before completing case forms at follow-up appointments.
Choudhury et al (2018) stated that PFOA affects 32 % men and 36 % women over the age of 60 years and is associated with anterior knee pain, stiffness, and poor mobility; PFA is a bone-sparing treatment for isolated PFOA. These investigators examined the relationship between patient-related outcome measures (PROMs) and measurements obtained from gait analysis before and after PFA. There are currently no studies relating to gait analysis and PFA available in the literature. These investigators addressed the question: Does PFA improve PROMs and restore normal gait? A prospective cohort study was conducted of 10 patients known to have isolated PFOA who had undergone PFA compared to a gender- and age-matched control group. The patients were also asked to complete questionnaires (Oxford knee score (OKS), EQ-5D-5 L) before surgery and 1 year after surgery. Gait analysis was done on an instrumented treadmill comparing Ground reaction force parameters between the control and pre and post-operative PFA patients. The average age 60 (49 to 69) years with a female to male ratio of 9:1. Patient and healthy subjects were matched for age and gender, with no significant difference in body mass index (BMI). Post-op PFA improvement in gait could be seen in ground reaction force at 6.5 km/h. Base support difference between control and pre-op group was statistically significant both on the flat p = 0.0001 and uphill p = 0.429 (5 % inclination) and p = 0.0062 (10 % inclination). Uphill gait at 15 % showed post-operative gait improvements. Patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) response rate was 70 % (7/10) pre-operative and 60 %(6/10) post-operative. EQ-5D-5 L scores reflected patient health state was better post-operatively. The authors concluded that this study found that gait analysis provided an objective measure of functional gait and reflected by significant improvement in QOL of patients post-PFA. Current literature discusses positive outcomes in relation to physiological gait patterns, normalized gait analysis parameters and PROMs in TKA. Literature lacks studies relating to gait-analysis and PFA. Valuable information provided by this study highlighted that PFA has a beneficial outcome reflected by PROMs and improvement in vertical ground reaction force and gait uphill. These researchers stated that further research and studies are needed to examine how care-providers may use gait-analysis as part of patient care plans for PFOA patients. This was a small (n = 10) study with short-term follow-up (1 year); these preliminary findings need to be validated by well-designed studies.
Strickland et al (2018) described current indications, implants, economic benefits, comparison to TKA, and functional and patient-reported outcomes of PFA. Modern onlay implants and improved patient selection have allowed for recent improvements in short- and long-term outcomes after patellofemoral joint replacement surgery. Patellofemoral arthroplasty has become an increasingly utilized technique for the successful treatment of isolated patellofemoral arthritis. Advances in patient selection, implant design, and surgical technique have resulted in improved performance and longevity of these implants. The authors concluded that although short- and mid-term data for modern PFA appear promising, future studies assessing the long-term results of new designs and technologies of PFA as well as comparison studies to TKA are needed to evaluate patient outcomes and implant performance.
Godshaw and associates (2018) stated that patellofemoral arthritis is a common cause of anterior knee pain and limits flexion-related activities of daily living and exercise. While frequently present in bi-compartmental and tri-compartmental OA, patellofemoral arthritis could occur in isolation; and PFA as a therapeutic option is gaining in popularity, especially with new implant designs. These researchers reported a case in which new inlay implants were used to resurface the patellofemoral joint in a patient with contralateral compromise secondary to a previous below-knee amputation. A 37-year old woman with a contralateral right below-knee amputation and progressive left patellofemoral arthritis had failed multiple conservative treatment modalities. She underwent isolated PFA using an inlay-designed implant. The patient was followed for 2 years post-operatively. She noticed an immediate increase in her knee ROM and her pain scores improved; 2 years post-operatively, she demonstrated drastic improvement in all outcome measures: International Knee Documentation Committee score (16.1 to 88.5), Lysholm Knee Scoring Scale (22 to 100), Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS) Symptoms (7.14 to 96.43), KOOS Pain (2.78 to 100), KOOS Activities of Daily Living (0 to 100), KOOS Sports (0 to 100), and KOOS Quality of Life (12.5 to 93.75). The authors concluded that inlay PFA is a valid therapeutic option for isolated patellofemoral arthritis. Successful results could be attained with this procedure after failure of conservative measures in patients with limited or no evidence of tibio-femoral arthritis. Moreover, these researchers stated that despite the superiority of PFA, the long-term follow-up literature for this design is limited, and thus further studies are needed to fully explore its benefits and efficacy.
Ajnin et al (2018) stated that the Femoro Patella Vialli FPV is a second-generation PFA implant. It is the second most commonly used patellofemoral implant in the National Joint Registry of England and Wales. This was the first published mid-term outcome series for this prosthesis. These investigators reviewed the outcomes for all patients who had PFA. Primary outcome was the intention to revise the implant; secondary outcome measures were Oxford and Kujala outcome scores. A total of 43 FPV patellofemoral joint prostheses were implanted in 32 patients at the authors’ institution between April 2004 and December 2012. Mean follow-up was 65 (30 to 119) months. Only 1 patient was lost to follow-up. At final follow-up the mean flexion was 110° (85° to 130°); 5 of 43 knees required revision to a TKA because of progressive tibio-femoral OA. Revisions were carried out after a mean of 56 months (30 to 109). There was no radiographic loosening in any case. The most recent functional assessment showed that the mean Oxford Knee score (OKS) has improved from 18 (5 to 35) pre-operatively to 29 (9 to 45) and the Kujala score from 35 (5 to 74) pre-operatively to 58 (18 to 91). The authors concluded that mid-term results with FPV prosthesis demonstrated that moderate outcomes could be achieved; PFA may be used to delay TKA; but judicious patient selection to identify truly isolated PFOA is needed. Chondral lesion in weight bearing area can lead to early implant failure. The main cause of failure was progressive tibio-femoral OA. Long-term follow-up data are needed to ascertain the safety and effectiveness of this device/procedure’s long-term performance.
van Engen et al (2019) noted that patellar tendon shortening may occur following patellofemoral joint replacement (PFJR). These investigators hypothesized that patellar tendon shortening results in unfavorable PROs. These researchers examined the effect of patellar tendon shortening following PFJR on PROs. In this sub-study of a prospective cohort study, a total of 108 patients with isolated PFOA underwent 124 PFJRs. They measured both patellar tendon length and length of the patella on pre-operative radiographs, and on radiographs acquired at 8 weeks and at 1 year post-operative. More than 10 % decrease in patellar tendon length relative to the pre-operative patellar tendon length was defined as patellar tendon shortening. Clinical outcomes were assessed using the knee-specific KOOS questionnaire (Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score). Repeated measures ANOVA was used to analyze for differences in change from baseline KOOS subscales between patients with and patients without patellar tendon shortening. A complete series of standardized pre-operative, 8 weeks and 1 year post-operative radiographs was available for 87 knees in 82 patients. At 8 weeks, 16 of 87 knees (18 %) showed patellar tendon length shortening, and 27 of 87 knees (31 %) at 1 year. The authors found no statistically significant relation between patellar tendon length shortening and change from baseline KOOS subscales at 1 year follow-up (pain p = 0.29, symptoms p = 0.56, ADL p = 0.23, sport or recreation p = 0.22, knee-related QO) p = 0.15). The authors concluded that patellar tendon length shortening following PFJR occurred in 31 % of knees at 1 year, and did not result in inferior PROs. This study provided only short-term follow-up (1 year) data.
Bunyoz et al (2019) noted that due to inconsistent results and high failure rates, TKA is more often used to treat isolated PFOA despite the theoretical advantage of PFA. It is perceived that second-generation PFA may have improved the outcomes of surgery. In this systematic review, these investigators compared outcomes of second-generation PFA and TKA by assessment of PROMs. A systematic search was made in PubMed, Medline, Embase, Cinahl, Web of Science, Cochrane Library and MeSH to identify studies using second-generation PFA implants or TKA for treatment of PFOA. Only studies using the American Knee Society (AKSS), the Oxford Knee Score (OKS) or the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC) to report on PROMs were included. The post-operative weighted mean AKSS knee scores were 88.6 in the second-generation PFA group and 91.8 in the TKA group. The post-operative weighted mean AKSS function score was 79.5 in the second-generation PFA group and 86.4 in the TKA group. There was no significant difference in the mean AKSS knee or function scores between the second-generation PFA group and the TKA group. The post-operative weighted mean OKS score was 36.7 and the post-operative weighted mean WOMAC score was 24.4. The revision rate was higher in the second-generation PFA group (113 revisions [8.4 %]) than in the TKA group (3 revisions [1.3 %]). Progression of OA was most commonly noted as the reason for revision of PFA, and it was noted in 60 cases [53.1 %]; this was followed by pain in 33 cases [29.2 %]. The authors concluded that excellent post-operative weighted mean AKSS knee scores were found in both the second-generation PFA group and in the TKA group, suggesting that both surgical options could result in a satisfying patient-reported outcome. Higher revision rates in the second-generation PFA studies may in part be due to challenges related to patient selection. Based on evaluation of PROMs, the use of second-generation PFA appeared to be an equal option to TKA for the treatment of isolated PFOA in appropriately selected patients. Level of Evidence = IV.
These researchers stated that this systematic review was limited by the lack of availability of the individual patients’ PROM outcome in the included studies; thus, inaccuracy was introduced to the reporting of data as weighted means. Furthermore, there were few studies reporting the use of TKA to treat isolated PFOA, and in general, the number of patients in all the studies were low. Finally, the low level of evidence in studies included a considerable risk of selection bias in the studies, which must be accounted for in the interpretation of results. In the future, there is a need of more prospective, RCTs or comparative studies to bring forward higher level evidence in the comparison of second generation PFA with TKA for treatment of isolated PFOA. In addition, evidence considering the long-term prognosis for younger patients who would be expected to out-live the typical lifespan of a TKA is limited and should be further investigated.
Joseph et al (2020) reported on a pragmatic, single-center, double-blind randomized clinical trial that was conducted in a UK National Health Service (NHS) teaching hospital to evaluate whether there is a difference in functional knee scores, quality-of-life outcome assessments, and complications at one-year after intervention between total knee arthroplasty (TKA) and patellofemoral arthroplasty (PFA) in patients with severe isolated patellofemoral arthritis. The parallel, two-arm, superiority trial was powered at 80%, and involved 64 patients with severe isolated patellofemoral arthritis. The primary outcome measure was the functional section of the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC) score at 12 months. Secondary outcomes were the full 24-item WOMAC, Oxford Knee Score (OKS), American Knee Society Score (AKSS), EuroQol five dimension (EQ-5D) quality-of-life score, the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Physical Activity Rating Scale, and complication rates collected at three, six, and 12 months. For longer-term follow-up, OKS, EQ-5D, and self-reported satisfaction score were collected at 24 and 60 months. Among 64 patients who were randomized, five patients did not receive the allocated intervention, three withdrew, and one declined the intervention. There were no statistically significant differences in the patients' WOMAC function score at 12 months (adjusted mean difference, -1.2 (95% confidence interval -9.19 to 6.80); p = 0.765). There were no clinically significant differences in the secondary outcomes. Complication rates were comparable (superficial surgical site infections, four in the PFA group versus five in the TKA group). There were no statistically significant differences in the patients' OKS score at 24 and 60 months or self-reported satisfaction score or pain-free years. The investigators concluded that, among patients with severe isolated patellofemoral arthritis, this study found similar functional outcome at 12 months and mid-term in the use of PFA compared with TKA.
Patellar Denervation
van Jonbergen et al (2014) noted that they have previously shown that in the absence of patellar resurfacing the use of electrocautery around the margin of the patella improved the 1-year clinical outcome of TKR. In this prospective, randomized study, these researchers compared the mean 3.7 year (1.1 to 4.2) clinical outcomes of 300 TKRs performed with and without electrocautery of the patellar rim – this was an update of a previous report. The overall prevalence of AKP was 32 % (95 % CI: 26 to 39), and 26 % (95 % CI: 18 to 35) in the intervention group compared with 38 % (95 % CI: 29 to 48) in the control group (chi-squared test; p = 0.06). The overall prevalence of AKP remained unchanged between the 1-year and 3.7-year follow-up (chi-squared test; p = 0.12). The mean total WOMAC and the AKS knee and function scores at 3.7 years' follow-up were similar in the intervention and control groups (repeated measures analysis of variance p = 0.43, p = 0.09 and p = 0.59, respectively). There were no complications. A total of 10 patients (intervention group, n = 3; control group, n = 7) required secondary patellar resurfacing after the first year. The authors concluded that the findings of this study suggested that the improved clinical outcome with electrocautery denervation compared with no electrocautery was not maintained at a mean of 3.7 years' follow-up.
Handel et al (2014) determined possible differences in the mid-term results of TKA in patients treated with and without denervation of the patella. This study included 80 TKR in 71 patients who were treated with TKR, either with (n = 40) or without (n = 40) simultaneous denervation of the patella out of a total population with 122 knee replacements in 100 patients. Comparability of both groups was achieved by applying matching criteria. All patients were reviewed by isokinetic tests, physical and radiological examination. The mean follow-up time was 2.2 years. The mean hospital for special surgery (HSS) score revealed no statistically significant differences between both groups (with denervation 77.9 ± 11.1 and without denervation 77.8 ± 11.0, p = 0.976). The isokinetic torque measurements with low angle velocity (60°/s) indicated slightly higher values during extension (60.2 ± 32.2 Nm versus 55.8 ± 25.2 Nm, p = 0.497) and flexion (52.4 ± 28.3 Nm versus 46.1 ± 22.3 Nm, p = 0.272) movements of the affected knee joint. However, the differences did not reach statistical significance. At high angle velocity (180°/s) no differences could be found between both groups. No cases of post-operative necrosis of the patella were observed. Anterior knee pain after denervation was reported in 6 cases (15 %) compared to 10 cases (25 %) in patients who were treated without denervation (p = 0.402). The authors concluded that no statistically significant differences could be found between patients with and without denervation of the patella for TKA.
Pulavarti et al (2014) randomized 126 consecutive patients undergoing primary TKA into 2 groups: Group 1– patella denervation (n = 63) and Group 2 – no patella denervation (n = 63). Assessment was performed pre-operatively and at 3, 12 and 24 months post-operatively. Average follow-up of patients was 26.5 months for denervation group and 26.3 months for no denervation group (p = 0.84). Pain scores for AKP were significantly better in the denervation group at 3 months but not at 12 and 24 months. Patient satisfaction was higher in the denervation group. Flexion range was higher in the denervation group at 3, 12 and 24 months review (p < 0.01). However, the authors noted that there were no statistically significant differences with other validated knee scores.
Cheng et al (2014) stated that the impact of patellar denervation with electrocautery in TKA on post-operative outcomes has been under debate. These researchers conducted a meta-analysis and systematic review to compare the benefits and risks of circum-patellar electrocautery with those of non-electrocautery in primary TKAs. Comparative studies and RCTs were identified by conducting an electronic search of articles dated up to September 2012 in PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, and the Cochrane databases. A total of 6 studies that focus on a total of 849 knees were analyzed. A random-effects model was conducted using the inverse-variance method for continuous variables and the Mantel-Haenszel method for dichotomous variables. There was no significant difference in the incidence of AKP between the electrocautery and non-electrocautery groups. In term of patellar score and Knee Society Score (KSS), circum-patellar electrocautery improved clinical outcomes compared with non-electrocautery in TKAs. The statistical differences were in favor of the electrocautery group; but have minimal clinical significance. In addition, the overall complications indicated no statistical significance between the 2 groups. The authors concluded that the findings of this study showed no strong evidence either for or against electrocautery compared with non-electrocautery in TKAs.
In a meta-analysis, Li and colleagues (2014) examined if patellar denervation with electrocautery after TKA could reduce the post-operative AKP. A total of 5 RCTs with 572 patients and 657 knees were eligible for this meta-analysis. The results showed that patellar denervation with electrocautery was associated with less AKP, lower VAS, higher patellar scores and better Knee Function Score (KFS) compared with no patellar denervation. Complications did not differ significantly between the 2 groups. The authors concluded that the existing evidence indicated that patellar denervation with electrocautery may be a better approach, as it improved both AKP and knee function after TKA. Moreover, they stated that future multi-center RCTs with large sample sizes are needed to verify these findings.
Arirachakaran et al (2015) conducted a systematic review and network meta-analysis of RCTs with the aim of comparing relevant clinical outcomes between patellar denervation, resurfacing and non-resurfacing. A database search was performed using PubMed and Scopus search engines; RCTs or quasi-experimental designs comparing clinical outcomes between treatments by a search of articles dated from inception to October 23, 2012. Unstandardized mean difference (UMD) and random effects methods were applied for pooling continuous and dichotomous outcomes, respectively. A longitudinal mixed regression model was used for network meta-analysis to indirectly compare treatment effects; 18 of 315 studies identified were eligible. Compared with patellar non-resurfacing, patellar denervation had a UMD that displayed a significant improvement in symptoms with values in pain VAS and KSS of -0.6 [95 % CI: -1.13 to -0.25] and 2.55 (95 % CI: 0.43 to 4.68), respectively. The UMD in VAS, KSS, and KFS in patellar resurfacing showed no significant improvement in symptoms when compared to non-resurfacing. Patients who underwent surgery with patellar resurfacing had a lower re-operation rates with pooled relative risks (RRs) of 0.69 (95 % CI: 0.50 to 0.94) when compared to non-resurfacing. The network meta-analysis suggested a benefit of borderline significance for patellar denervation with a pooled RR of 0.63 (95 % CI: 0.38 to 1.03), showing that there is a lower chance of AKP when compared to non-resurfacing. Patellar resurfacing also displayed a significantly lower chance of re-operation with a pooled RR of 0.68 (95 % CI: 0.50 to 0.92) when compared to non-resurfacing. Multiple active treatment comparisons indicated that patellar denervation resulted in greater improvement in KFS than patellar resurfacing. The authors concluded that the findings of this review suggested that either patellar denervation or patellar resurfacing may be selected for the management of the PF component in TKR. They noted that patellar denervation may help improve post-operative knee function, but does not improve pain when compared to patellar resurfacing.
Kwon et al (2015) stated that there is controversy over the need for electrocauterization of the patella in non-resurfacing TKA. In a prospective RCT, these researchers examined if this procedure is beneficial. A total of 50 patients who underwent electrocautery were compared with 50 patients who did not undergo this procedure. These investigators determined cartilage status, pre-operative and post-operative AKS score, the WOMAC and the PF scores for a minimum of 5 years. The 2 groups did not differ significantly in demographics, intra-operative cartilage status, or pre-operative or post-operative outcomes. No complications were detected in either group. The authors concluded that they found no benefits of electrocautery of the patella in patellar non-resurfacing TKA up to 5 years.
Cryotherapy
The American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS)’s evidence-based clinical practice guideline on “Surgical management of osteoarthritis of the knee” (2015) noted that cryotherapy is one of the interventions that were considered but not recommended.
Dasa and associates (2016) carried out a retrospective chart review of 100 patients who underwent TKA to examine the value of adding peri-operative cryo-neurolysis to a multi-modal pain management program. The treatment group consisted of the first 50 patients consecutively treated after the practice introduced peri-operative (5 days prior to surgery) cryo-neurolysis as part of its standard pain management protocol. The control group consisted of the 50 patients treated before cryo-neurolysis was introduced. Outcomes included hospital length of stay (LOS), post-operative opioid requirements, and PROs of pain and function. A significantly lower proportion of patients in the treatment group had a LOS of greater than or equal to 2 days compared with the control group (6 % versus 67 %, p < 0.0001) and required 45 % less opioids during the first 12 weeks following surgery. The treatment group reported a statistically significant reduction in symptoms at the 6- and 12-week follow-up compared with the control group and within-group significant reductions in pain intensity and pain interference at 2- and 6-week follow-up, respectively. The authors concluded that peri-operative cryo-neurolysis in combination with multi-modal pain management may significantly improve outcomes in patients undergoing TKA. Moreover, these researchers stated that promising results from this preliminary retrospective study warrant further investigation of this novel treatment in prospective, randomized trials. Level of Evidence = III.
The authors stated that this study had several drawbacks, including its retrospective, non-randomized nature, and lack of blinding of patients and investigators, which may have biased results and limited the generalizability of findings. Selection bias may have influenced results as the control group was comprised of the first 50 patients with complete WOMAC responses treated prior to the initiation of pre-operative cryo-neurolysis. These patients may have been different from less compliant patients who did not complete the questionnaire and were excluded from the control group. In addition, differences between the control and treatment groups may be attributable to history or other confounding factors, rather than the study intervention. Because the treatment group underwent TKA more recently than the control group, and there has been a trend towards reducing post-operative LOS in the U.S., it was possible that the shorter LOS observed in the treatment group may be an artifact of history. However, the U.S. hospital mean LOS decreased by just 0.2 days from 2003 to 2012. Therefore, it appeared unlikely that historical trends could explain the dramatically lower LOS observed in the treatment group compared with the control group (mean of 0.8 days versus 1.7 days). Patients' and surgeons' awareness of which patients received cryo-neurolysis may have contributed to some of the improved outcomes in the treatment group, including self-reported measures and LOS. Although the surgeon made the ultimate determination for discharge, this decision was based on the patient's ability to meet certain objectively-measured physical therapy metrics, which reduced the likelihood that discharge decisions were biased. Further, while patients' and surgeons' expectations may have favorably influenced outcomes in the treatment group, it was unlikely that these expectations were solely responsible for the dramatic reduction in LOS and post-operative opioid requirements observed in this group. There were missing data on PROMs for both study groups, due to inconsistent completion of questionnaires, although missing PROM data was more commonly observed in the control group as the office improved its efforts to encourage patient completion of surveys over time. The lack of significant differences between the treatment and control groups on PROMs may be due in part to unequal and small sample sizes for these measures.
In a randomized, double-blind, multi-center, sham-controlled trial with a 6-month follow-up, Radnovich and colleagues (2017) examined the safety/tolerability and efficacy of cryo-neurolysis for reduction of pain and symptoms associated with knee OA. Patients with mild-to-moderate knee OA were randomized 2:1 to cryo-neurolysis targeting the infra-patellar branch of the saphenous nerve (IPBSN) or sham treatment. The primary end-point was the change from baseline to Day 30 in the WOMAC pain score adjusted by the baseline score and site; secondary end-points, including VAS pain score and total WOMAC score, were tested in a pre-defined order. The ITT population consisted of 180 patients (n = 121 active treatment, n = 59 sham treatment). Compared to the sham group, patients who received active treatment had a statistically significant greater change from baseline in the WOMAC pain subscale score at Day 30 (p = 0.0004), Day 60 (p = 0.0176), and Day 90 (p = 0.0061). Patients deemed WOMAC pain responders at Day 120 continued to experience a statistically significant treatment effect at Day 150. Most expected side effects were mild in severity and resolved within 30 days. The incidence of device- or procedure-related AEs was similar in the 2 treatment groups with no occurrence of serious or unanticipated adverse device effects (ADE). The authors concluded that cryo-neurolysis of the IPBSN resulted in statistically significant decreased knee pain and improved symptoms compared to sham treatment for up to 150 days, and appeared safe and well-tolerated. Moreover, these researchers stated that the clinical evidence presented in this trial highlighted the promising therapeutic impact that cryo-neurolysis may offer for the treatment of pain and symptoms associated with knee OA.
The authors stated that this study had several drawbacks. Although allocation to treatment group was initially well-concealed, patients began to more accurately guess their treatment group assignment based on their response to treatment over time, which may have affected PROs and biased results in favor of active treatment. There was a lack of consensus regarding how OA treatment responders should be defined. The Initiative on Methods, Measurement, and Pain Assessment in Clinical Trials (IMMPACT) suggested that, in evaluating interventions for chronic pain, a 10 to 20 % decrease in pain intensity was minimally important, greater than or equal to 30 % moderately important, and greater than or equal to 50 % substantial. Per these recommendations, the criterion used to define WOMAC pain and VAS responders in the present study (greater than or equal to 30 % decrease in pain intensity) was consistent with a moderate level of pain relief; utilization of a higher threshold (greater than or equal to 50 % reduction) for defining responders would have resulted in smaller proportions in both study groups. The reduction in knee pain and symptoms experienced by actively treated patients did not translate to improved generic health-related QOL, possibly because improvement in function in patients with OA was better detected by the WOMAC than the SF-3641 and the WOMAC better discriminated among individuals with knee problems whereas the SF-36 better discriminated among individuals with varying levels of self-reported general health status and co-morbidities. The reduction of approximately 30 % in pain observed in the sham group was consistent with the size of the sham effect in studies utilizing sham acupuncture, and may be attributable to patient expectations or the placebo effects of participating in a research study with frequent clinical contact. Lastly, although the study was conducted at multiple sites with different investigators applying treatment, lending greater weight to the robustness and generalizability of results, the trial should be replicated to ensure reproducibility of findings.
The 2019 American College of Rheumatology/Arthritis Foundation’s guideline on “The management of osteoarthritis of the hand, hip, and knee” (Kolasinski et al, 2020) conditionally recommended thermal interventions (locally applied heat or cold) for patients with knee, hip, and/or hand OA. It stated that the method of delivery of thermal interventions varied considerably in published reports, including moist heat, diathermy (electrically delivered heat), ultrasound (US), and hot and cold packs. Studies using diathermy or US were more likely to be sham controlled than those using other heat delivery modalities. The heterogeneity of modalities and short duration of benefit for these interventions resulted in the conditional recommendation.
Ilfeld and Finneran (2020) stated that 2 regional analgesic modalities currently cleared by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) hold promise in providing post-operative analgesia free of many of the limitations of both opioids and local anesthetic-based techniques. Cryoneurolysis uses exceptionally low temperature to reversibly ablate a peripheral nerve, resulting in temporary analgesia. Where applicable, it offers a unique option given its extended duration of action measured in weeks to months after a single application. Percutaneous peripheral nerve stimulation (PNS) entails insertion of an insulated lead via a needle to lie adjacent to a peripheral nerve. Analgesia is produced by introducing electrostimulation with an external pulse generator. It is a unique regional analgesic in that it does not induce sensory, motor, or proprioception deficits and is cleared for up to 60 days of use. However, both modalities have limited validation when applied to acute pain, and randomized, controlled trials are needed to define both benefits and risks. Moreover, these researchers stated that multiple questions remain regarding US-guided percutaneous cryoneurolysis for the treatment of acute pain, not the least of which is determining whether the duration of action can be controlled by manipulating the administration protocol. Additional applications such as providing analgesia after iliac crest bone grafting, as well as various breast, intra-thoracic and abdominal surgical procedures remain to be examined. Data from randomized, controlled clinical trials are needed to conclusively demonstrate treatment benefits and better determine the incidence of AEs.
Mihalko and colleagues (2021) hypothesized that pre-operative cryoneurolysis of the superficial genicular nerves in patients with OA would decrease post-operative opioid use relative to standard of care (SOC) treatment in patients undergoing TKA. Patients received either cryoneurolysis (ITT: n = 62) or SOC (ITT: n = 62). The cryoneurolysis group received cryoneurolysis of the superficial genicular nerves 3 to 7 days before surgery plus a similar pre-operative, intra-operative, and post-operative pain management protocol as the SOC group. The primary endpoint was cumulative opioid consumption in total daily morphine equivalents from discharge to the 6-week study follow-up assessment. Secondary endpoints included changes in pain and functional scores. Primary and secondary endpoints were assessed using ITT and per-protocol (PP) analyses. The primary endpoint was not met in the ITT analysis (4.8 [cryoneurolysis] versus 6.1 [SOC] mg; p = 0.0841); but was met in the PP analysis (4.2 versus 5.9 mg; p = 0.0186) after excluding patients with medication deviations or missing follow-up data. Compared with the SOC group, the cryoneurolysis group had improved functional scores and numerical improvements in pain scores across all follow-up assessments, with significant improvements observed in current pain from baseline to the 72-hour and 2-week follow-up assessments and pain in the past week from baseline to the 12-week follow-up assessment. The authors concluded that findings from the PP analysis suggested that preoperative cryoneurolysis may be considered as a part of multi-modal pain management to minimize opioid use while reducing pain and improving knee function after surgery. Moreover, these researchers stated that future studies can examine the safety, efficacy, and opioid-sparing benefits of cryoneurolysis in patients with prior long-term opioid use undergoing TKA.
The authors stated that a major drawback of this study was the lack of a sham control group. These researchers noted that although they could not discount the possibility that the improved outcomes in the cryoneurolysis group were partially attributable to a placebo effect, they stated that results from a sham-controlled study of cryoneurolysis for the treatment of knee OA pain demonstrated a statistically significant reduction in pain in patients who received cryoneurolysis. Furthermore, for the KOOS for joint replacement (KOOS JR) scores, the highest (worst) score was imputed for questions that patients did not answer; regardless of this imputation that would bias against the study intervention, cryoneurolysis improved knee function outcome scores across multiple time-points. The use of a single site allowed for greater control over pain management and physical therapy (PT) protocols. Because this study was conducted at a single clinical site, the findings may not be generalizable to larger, more diverse populations, especially given that there appeared to be wide variation in post-operative opioid prescribing habits even within a single healthcare system, necessitating system-wide quality improvement programs. Some patients in the present study did not receive spinal anesthesia and instead received general anesthesia. General anesthesia is associated with a higher rate of infection and a longer hospital LOS compared with spinal anesthesia. Given these data, it may be expected that the use of general anesthesia could bias against the outcomes assessed in this study. However, despite the numerically larger number of patients in the cryoneurolysis group who received general anesthesia compared with the SOC group, improved pain management and function were observed with this intervention. In addition, while patients who were not prescribed tramadol were excluded from the PP analysis, tramadol use was not directly measured; as such, it was not possible to examine how patient non-adherence could have affected observed outcomes. Furthermore, patient satisfaction measures and cost efficiency were not analyzed, and future studies incorporating these analyses may help provide a comprehensive understanding of treatment effects beyond clinical outcomes. Finally, given the number of medical deviations that could have confounded patient outcomes, results from the PP analysis were likely more meaningful than the ITT analysis; however, the PP analysis should be interpreted with caution because of the small sample size and because it was more likely to be biased toward the null hypothesis than the ITT analysis.
The American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons’ evidence-based clinical practice guideline on “Management of osteoarthritis of the knee (non-arthroplasty)” (AAOS, 2021) stated that “Denervation therapy may reduce pain and improve function in patients with symptomatic osteoarthritis of the knee. Strength of Recommendation: Limited (downgrade) … The Denervation Therapy recommendation has been downgraded 2 levels because of inconsistent evidence and bias ... Future research in this area should embrace detailed osteoarthritis characterization including sub-group analyses, osteoarthrosis severity stratification, and end-stage disease in patients unable to have total knee arthroplasty (e.g., due to age or co-morbidities). Furthermore, using clinically relevant outcomes and controls for bias are warranted along with cost-effectiveness analysis”.
Intra-Articular Injection Triamcinolone Acetonide Extended-Release (Zilretta)
In a randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial, Henriksen et al (2015) evaluated the clinical benefits of an intra-articular corticosteroid injection given before exercise therapy in patients with OA of the knee. The participants had radiographic confirmation of clinical OA of the knee, clinical signs of localized inflammation in the knee, and knee pain during walking (score greater than 4 on a scale of 0 to 10). Subjects were randomly allocated (1:1) to an intra-articular 1-ml injection of the knee with methylprednisolone acetate (Depo-Medrol), 40 mg/ml, dissolved in 4 ml of lidocaine hydrochloride (10 mg/ml) (corticosteroid group) or a 1-ml isotonic saline injection mixed with 4 ml of lidocaine hydrochloride (10 mg/ml) (placebo group). Two weeks after the injections, all participants started a 12-week supervised exercise program. The primary outcome was change in the Pain subscale of the KOOS questionnaire (range of 0 to 100; higher scores indicate greater improvement) at week 14. Secondary outcomes included the remaining KOOS subscales and objective measures of physical function and inflammation. Outcomes were measured at baseline, week 2 (exercise start), week 14 (exercise stop), and week 26 (follow-up). A total of 100 patients were randomized to the corticosteroid group (n = 50) or the placebo group (n = 50); 45 and 44 patients, respectively, completed the trial. The mean (SE) changes in the KOOS Pain subscale score at week 14 were 13.6 (1.8) and 14.8 (1.8) points in the corticosteroid and placebo groups, respectively, corresponding to a statistically insignificant mean difference of 1.2 points (95 % CI: -3.8 to 6.2; p = 0.64). These researchers found no statistically significant group differences in any of the secondary outcomes at any time-point. The authors concluded that no additional benefit resulted from adding an intra-articular injection of 40 mg of corticosteroid before exercise in patients with painful OA of the knee. They stated that further research is needed to establish optimal and potentially synergistic combinations of conservative treatments.
Zilretta is an extended release form triamcinolone acetonide (Kenalog-40 injection) and is FDA-approved for the treatment of osteoarthritis pain of the knee. Zilretta is dosed as a single 32 mg intra-articular injection. The labeling states that the efficacy and safety of repeat administration have not been evaluated (Flexion, 2017). Zilretta is not interchangeable with other formulations of triamcinolone acetonide. The labeling states that Zilretta is not suitable for use in small joints, such as the hand. The labeling states that the efficacy and safety of Zilretta for management of osteoarthritis pain of shoulder and hip have not been evaluated.
The labeling states that, in the pivotal study for FDA approval, Zilretta demonstrated a statistically significant reduction in pain intensity at the primary endpoint versus placebo (Flexion, 2017).
However, statistical significance was not demonstrated between the Zilretta and the active control (immediate-release triamcinolone acetonide) treatment groups for the secondary endpoint change from baseline at Week 12 in weekly mean Average Daily Pain intensity scores (see Conaghan et al, 2018a and 2018b).
Conaghan et al (2018b) stated intra-articular corticosteroids relieve osteoarthritis pain, but rapid systemic absorption limits efficacy. FX006 (Zilretta), a novel, microsphere-based, extended-release triamcinolone acetonide (TA) formulation, prolongs TA joint residence and reduces systemic exposure compared with standard TA crystalline suspension (TAcs). The authors assessed symptomatic benefits and safety of FX006 compared with saline-solution placebo and TAcs. In this Phase-3, multicenter, double-blinded, 24-week study, adults ≥40 years of age with knee osteoarthritis (Kellgren-Lawrence grade 2 or 3) and average-daily-pain (ADP)-intensity scores of ≥5 and ≤9 (0 to 10 numeric rating scale) were centrally randomized (1:1:1) to a single intra-articular injection of FX006 (32 mg), saline-solution placebo, or TAcs (40 mg). The primary end point was change from baseline to week 12 in weekly mean ADP-intensity scores for FX006 compared with saline-solution placebo. Secondary end points were area-under-effect (AUE) curves of the change in weekly mean ADP-intensity scores from baseline to week 12 for FX006 compared with saline-solution placebo, AUE curves of the change in weekly mean ADP-intensity scores from baseline to week 12 for FX006 compared with TAcs, change in weekly mean ADP-intensity scores from baseline to week 12 for FX006 compared with TAcs, and AUE curves of the change in weekly mean ADP-intensity scores from baseline to week 24 for FX006 compared with saline-solution placebo. Exploratory end points included week-12 changes in Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC) and Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score Quality of Life (KOOS-QOL) subscale scores for FX006 compared with saline-solution placebo and TAcs. Adverse events were elicited at each inpatient visit. The primary end point was met. Among 484 treated patients (n = 161 for FX006, n = 162 for saline-solution placebo, and n = 161 for TAcs), FX006 provided significant week-12 improvement in ADP intensity compared with that observed for saline-solution placebo (least-squares mean change from baseline: -3.12 versus -2.14; p < 0.0001) indicating ∼50% improvement. FX006 afforded improvements over saline-solution placebo for all secondary and exploratory end points (p < 0.05). Improvements in osteoarthritis pain were not significant for FX006 compared with TAcs using the ADP-based secondary measures. Exploratory analyses of WOMAC-A, B, and C and KOOS-QOL subscales favored FX006 (p ≤ 0.05). Adverse events were generally mild, occurring at similar frequencies across treatments. The authors concluded that FX006 provided significant, clinically meaningful pain reduction compared with saline-solution placebo at week 12 (primary end point).
A commentary accompanying the afore-mentioned study reached the following conclusions (Jain, 2018): "Conaghan and colleagues performed a well-designed and robust multicenter clinical trial. They report the efficacy of FX006, a microsphere-based extended-release formulation of triamcinolone acetonide, as compared with placebo (saline solution). The results convincingly demonstrate the superiority of FX006 over placebo for pain relief and functional outcomes at 12 weeks (as assessed by change in weekly mean average daily pain [ADP] intensity, the primary outcome measure, and the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index [WOMAC] and Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score [KOOS]). The results were not as impressive for the comparison of FX006 and standard triamcinolone acetonide crystalline suspension (TAcs). The authors did not identify a significant difference between FX006 and TAcs for the primary outcome. However, some of the exploratory end points, changes in the WOMAC and KOOS, were suggestive of a significant difference. What are the clinical implications of this study? At this point, the study provides evidence of the efficacy of FX006 compared with saline-solution placebo. Hence, implications are likely limited to clinicians who have concerns that TAcs is not effective in knee osteoarthritis. The likely increased cost of FX006 over TAcs may not sufficiently justify its use in clinical practice. The big question is whether FX006 is superior to TAcs, which is arguably the standard of care for intra-articular corticosteroid therapy. A follow-up trial with a primary head-to-head comparison of FX006 and TAcs could potentially make a major impact on clinical practice. Given the infrastructure available to the authors, they are encouraged to perform this trial."
In a phase IIb study, Conaghan et al (2018a) compared the analgesic benefits of 2 FX006 (Zilretta) doses with saline placebo injection. Participants with knee OA (Kellgren/Lawrence grade 2 to 3) and average daily pain (ADP) intensity greater than or equal to 5 to less than or equal to 9 (on a 0 to 10 Numerical Rating Scale [NRS]) were randomized (1:1:1) to receive single intra-articular (IA) injections of FX006 32 mg (n = 104) or 16 mg (n = 102) or saline placebo (n = 100). The primary end-point was the least squares mean (LSM) change from baseline to week 12 in weekly mean ADP intensity scores for FX006 32 mg versus saline placebo. The investigators reported that the primary end-point was not met (LSM change at week 12 -3.1 with FX006 32 mg versus -2.5 with saline placebo; LSM difference [95 % CI]: −0.58 [−1.22 to 0.07]) (p = 0.08). However, improvements in ADP intensity were significantly greater with FX006 32-mg than saline placebo at weeks 1 to 11 and week 13. Improvements in ADP intensity were significantly greater with FX006 16-mg versus saline placebo at weeks 1 to 9. A dose‐response effect in duration of maximal analgesic effect was evident (13 weeks with 32-mg versus 9 weeks with 16-mg), with FX006 32-mg providing increased therapeutic benefit relative to FX006 16-mg. All treatments were well-tolerated. The investigators concluded that, although the primary end-point was not met, their findings indicated a prolonged reduction in symptoms with FX006 with an evident dose response and a safety profile similar to saline placebo.
Bodick et al (2015) stated IA corticosteroids are a mainstay in the treatment of knee osteoarthritis, and in clinical trials, they demonstrate a large initial analgesic effect that wanes over one to four weeks with the rapid efflux of drug from the joint. The present study was undertaken to determine if FX006, an extended-release formulation of triamcinolone acetonide, can provide pain relief that is superior to the current standard of care, immediate-release triamcinolone acetonide. In this Phase-2, double-blind, multicenter study, 228 patients with moderate to severe knee osteoarthritis pain were randomized to a single intra-articular injection of FX006 (containing 10, 40, or 60 mg of triamcinolone acetonide) or 40 mg of immediate-release triamcinolone acetonide. Data on the mean daily pain on the 11-point Numeric Rating Scale were collected over twelve weeks; the primary efficacy end point was the change from baseline to each of eight, ten, and twelve weeks in the weekly mean of the mean daily pain intensity scores analyzed with a longitudinal mixed-effects model. The 10-mg dose of FX006 produced pain relief that was improved relative to immediate-release triamcinolone acetonide at two through twelve weeks, although the difference in pain relief was not significant (p ≥ 0.05). The 40-mg dose of FX006 produced pain relief that was improved at two through twelve weeks and was significantly superior to immediate-release triamcinolone acetonide at five to ten weeks (p < 0.05 at each time point). At the 40-mg dose of FX006, prespecified secondary analyses, including responder analyses and all Western Ontario and McMaster Universities subscales, were significantly superior (p < 0.05) to immediate-release triamcinolone acetonide at eight weeks, and the time-weighted mean pain relief (assessed with mean daily pain intensity scores) was significantly superior to immediate-release triamcinolone acetonide over one to twelve weeks (p = 0.04). The 60-mg dose did not provide additional improvement relative to the 40-mg dose. Adverse events were generally mild and similar across all treatments. The authors concluded that intra-articular injection of FX006, an extended-release formulation of triamcinolone acetonide, provided a clinically relevant improvement in pain relief in patients with knee osteoarthritis relative to immediate-release triamcinolone acetonide, the current standard of care.
Russell et al (2018) compared blood glucose levels following intra-articular injection of triamcinolone acetonide extended-release (TA-ER) versus standard triamcinolone acetonide crystalline suspension (TAcs) in patients with knee OA and co-morbid type 2 diabetes. In this double-blind, randomized, parallel-group, phase-II study (NCT02762370), 33 patients with knee OA (ACR criteria) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (HbA1c 6.5 to 9.0 % [48 to 75 mmol/mol]; 1 to 2 oral hypoglycemic agents) were treated with IA TA-ER (32-mg n = 18) or TAcs 40-mg (n = 15). Continuous glucose monitoring-measured glucose (CGMG) was assessed from 1 week pre-injection through 2 weeks post-injection. End-points included change in average daily CGMG from baseline (days -3 to -1) to days 1 to 3 post-injection (CGMG days 1 to 3) (primary) and percent time average hourly CGMG levels remained in prespecified glycemic ranges. The change CGMG days 1 to 3 was significantly lower following TA-ER versus TAcs (14.7 versus 33.9 mg/dL, least-squares-mean-difference [95 % CI]: -19.2 [-38.0 to -0.4]; p = 0.0452). The clinical significance of this difference in this transient difference in average daily CGMG levels between TA-ER and TAcs was unknown. The percentage of time over days 1 to 3 that CGMG was in the target glycemic range (70 to 180 mg/dL) was numerically greater for TA-ER (63.3%) versus TAcs (49.7%), and that CGMG was greater than 180 mg/dL was lower for TA-ER (34.5 %) versus TAcs (49.9 %) (statistical significance of these differences not tested). Non-glycemic adverse events (AEs) were mild and comparable between groups.
In an open-label, single-arm, phase III-b clinical trial, Spitzer and colleagues (2019) examined the safety and efficacy of repeat administration of TA-ER in patients with symptomatic knee OA, including those with advanced radiographic severity. Subjects aged greater than or equal to 40 years received the first intra-articular TA-ER injection on day 1. Patients received the second injection timed to the response to the first injection (at either week 12, 16, 20, or 24). Patients who received 2 injections were evaluated every 4 weeks for 52 weeks. Safety was evaluated via treatment-emergent AEs and any change at 52 weeks in index-knee radiographs (chondrolysis, osteonecrosis, insufficiency fractures, subchondral bone changes). Exploratory efficacy end-points included WOMAC-A (pain), -B (stiffness), -C (function), and KOOS-Quality of Life (KOOS-QoL) after each injection. Initiative in Methods, Measurements and Pain Assessment in Clinical Trials (IMMPACT) criteria were used to determine moderate and substantial treatment response. A total of 208 patients were enrolled and received the first injection of TA-ER; 179 (86.1 %) received the second injection (median time to second injection: 16.6 weeks). Both injections were well-tolerated, with no unexpected AEs or significant radiographic changes at week 52. The magnitude and duration of clinical benefit following the first and second injections were similar, and most patients reported a substantial (greater than or equal to 50 %) analgesic response after both doses. The authors concluded that repeat administration of TA-ER using a flexible dosing schedule timed to patient response was well-tolerated, with no radiographic evidence of cartilage impact. Both injections resulted in similar improvements in OA symptoms across a broad spectrum of disease severity reflective of that observed in clinical practice.
The authors stated that this study had several drawbacks. Although the 52-week follow-up period and radiographic assessment provided useful data on the safety of repeat TA-ER injections, a longer study duration, additional administrations of TA-ER, and MRI would be useful for assessing certain safety parameters such as changes in the elements of joint structure. In this study, subjects were limited to 2 injections of TA-ER. Additional administration of TA-ER would have provided more data and may have improved subject retention; 25 subjects discontinued treatment due to pain recurrence sometime following the second injection. All discontinuations due to pain recurrence occurred greater than 12 weeks after the second injection, indicating that those subjects had responded to the second injection. Allowing a third administration of TA-ER may have reduced the number of discontinuations. In addition, as with any open-label, single-arm study, there was potential for bias; however, this was mitigated with respect to the radiographic data by time-blinding the independent radiologists. While inclusion of a placebo-arm would have been optimal, the high discontinuation rate expected for subjects randomized to placebo who would have been prohibited from receiving other treatment for their knee OA for 1 year (including IA corticosteroids in any joint, any other IA intervention in the index knee, and opiates) precluded this. Despite these drawbacks, this study allowed for evaluation of exploratory safety and efficacy of TA-ER repeat administration under circumstances more closely approximating “real-world” conditions than previous clinical trials.
Langworthy and co-workers (2019) stated that in a phase-III RCT, a single IA injection of TA-ER in patients with unilateral or bilateral knee OA demonstrated substantial improvement in pain and symptoms. Bilateral knee pain has emerged as a confounding factor in clinical trials when evaluating the effect of a single IA injection. Furthermore, unilateral disease is frequently first to emerge in active military personnel secondary to prior traumatic joint injury. In a post-hoc analysis, these researchers examined the safety and efficacy of TA-ER in a subgroup of subjects with unilateral knee OA. Subjects greater than or equal to 40 years of age with symptomatic knee OA were randomized to a single IA injection of TA-ER (32-mg), TA crystalline suspension (TAcs; 40 mg), or saline-placebo. Average daily pain (ADP)-intensity and rescue medication use were collected at each of weeks 1 to 24 post-injection; WOMAC-A (pain), WOMAC-B (stiffness), WOMAC-C (function), and KOOS-QoL were collected at weeks 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, and 24 post-injection; AEs were assessed throughout the study. Subjects with unilateral knee OA were selected for this analysis. Of 170 subjects with unilateral OA (TA-ER, n = 51; saline-placebo, n = 60; TAcs, n = 59), 42 % were men and 89 % were white; TA-ER significantly (p < 0.05) improved ADP-intensity versus saline-placebo (weeks 1 to 24) and TAcs (weeks 4 to 21); TA-ER significantly (p < 0.05) improved WOMAC-A versus saline-placebo (all time-points) and TAcs (weeks 4, 8, 12, 24). Consistent outcomes were observed for rescue medication, WOMAC-B, WOMAC-C, and KOOS-QoL; AEs were similar in frequency/type across treatments. The authors concluded that TA-ER provided 5 to 6 months' pain relief that consistently exceeded saline-placebo and TAcs, suggesting that intraarticularly injected TA-ER into the affected knee may be an effective non-opioid therapeutic option. Although the subjects included in this analysis did not fully represent the diverse demographics of active service members, the substantial unmet medical need in the military population suggested that TA-ER may be an important therapeutic option; prospective studies of TA-ER outcomes in a military-specific population are needed.
The authors stated that drawbacks of this post-hoc subgroup analysis included the relatively small unilateral knee OA sample sizes and the selection of subjects based on self-reported unilateral pain without confirmation of unilateral OA using X-ray evaluation of the contralateral knee. In addition, the age, sex, and racial distribution of the subjects in this study did not correlate with the demographics of the active duty military population. Although the active duty force is composed of 84.1 % men, only 37.3 % of subjects who received TA-ER in this analysis were men. Similarly, the population in this study was 11.2 % non-white, whereas approximately 1/3 of active duty members identify as a racial minority. In addition, the average age of subjects receiving TA-ER (60 years) may be older than military members seeking treatment for OA given the increased incidence of OA in younger age groups for military members compared with the general population.
Paik and colleagues (2019) noted that triamcinolone acetonide extended-release (ER) 32-mg (Zilretta) is approved for the management of OA pain of the knee and is administered as a single, 5-ml IA injection. Although the therapeutic effects from IA corticosteroids are typically short-lived, triamcinolone acetonide ER is formulated in poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microspheres that slowly release triamcinolone acetonide in the synovium, enabling their prolonged presence in the joint. This reduces systemic exposure and lessens corticosteroid-related systemic AEs, such as blood glucose elevations. In a 24-week, randomized, phase-III clinical trial, triamcinolone acetonide ER 32-mg significantly improved mean average daily pain intensity in patients with knee OA relative to placebo, and pain, stiffness and physical function (according to WOMAC criteria) relative to placebo and triamcinolone acetonide crystalline suspension (CS). Triamcinolone acetonide ER was generally well-tolerated, with a tolerability profile similar to that of triamcinolone acetonide CS and placebo. Findings from a single-arm, phase-IIIb clinical trial indicated that a repeat administration of triamcinolone acetonide ER may be similarly effective to an initial injection without having deleterious effects on cartilage or other aspects of joint structure. The authors concluded that triamcinolone acetonide ER expands the therapeutic options available for the management of OA pain of the knee. Moreover, these researchers stated that further investigation into the tolerability and efficacy of repeat administration of triamcinolone acetonide ER would be of interest, namely with longer-term and/or placebo-controlled studies.
Kivitz and associates (2019) noted that in randomized controlled knee osteoarthritis (OAK) trials (NCT01487161, NCT02116972, NCT02357459), IA TA-ER demonstrated substantial, prolonged analgesia versus saline-placebo and TAcs as assessed by patient-reported pain scales. This pooled analysis examined the impact of TA-ER on rescue medication use. Patients (n = 798) with OAK (ACR criteria; Kellgren-Lawrence grade 2/3) and baseline average daily pain intensity score of greater than or equal to 5 to less than or equal to 9 (0 to 10 numeric rating scale [NRS]) received a single IA injection of TA-ER (n = 324), saline-placebo (n = 262), or TAcs (n = 212). Acetaminophen/paracetamol tablets were provided to treat uncontrolled pain (knee or otherwise). Rescue medication consumption was monitored through a daily diary; pill counts were confirmed at the clinical site. Differences in rescue medication use were measured by least-squares mean (LSM) differences, number of rescue medication tablets used per day, and in area under the effect (AUE) curves of rescue medication tablets used per week. The overall number of rescue medication tablets used per day through week 24 was significantly less (p ≤ 0.05) for TA-ER versus saline-placebo (LSM difference, - 0.43) and TAcs (- 0.24). Rescue medication use was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower following TA-ER versus saline-placebo across weeks 1 to 12 (AUE weeks 1 to 12; LSM difference, - 24.5) and weeks 1 to 24 (AUE weeks 1 to 24; - 51.6) and versus TAcs across weeks 1 to 12 (AUE weeks 1 to 12; - 21.1). The authors concluded that in patients with painful OAK, reduced rescue medication use may be a potential benefit of TA-ER and further supports its analgesic efficacy. Moreover, these researchers stated that additional research is needed to examine if TA-ER impacts the use of other common oral analgesics (NSAIDs, opioids) for patients with OAK.
The authors stated that this analysis was limited by its pooled retrospective nature. This resulted in differences in the number of patients receiving each treatment because of differences in individual study designs and durations. Furthermore, the allowance to use rescue medication for any worsening pain, not limited to OA knee pain, may have confounded the results; however, given the fact that these were large randomized trials, the impact of this potential confounder was considered to be minimal.
Guidelines from the American College of Rheumatology (Kolasinski et al, 2020) have stated that "[t]here are insufficient data to judge the choice of short-acting over long-acting preparations" of intraarticular glucocorticoid injections for osteoarthritis.
The AAOS’ evidence-based clinical practice guideline on “Management of osteoarthritis of the knee (non-arthroplasty)” (AAOS, 2021) also noted the following regarding the use of intra-articular (IA) corticosteroids for patients with symptomatic osteoarthritis of the knee: “When we differentiated intra-articular corticosteroids extended versus immediate release (1 high, 2 moderate quality studies) … our analyses demonstrated that, extended release IA steroids can be used over immediate release to improve patient outcomes (Moderate strength recommendation)”.
Percutaneous Calcium Phosphate Injections
- Does percutaneous calcium phosphate injection improve validated patient-reported outcome measures?
- What proportion of patients experience failure of treatment (defined as a low score on the Tegner Lysholm Knee Scoring Scale)? And
- Is there a relationship between outcome and age, sex, BMI, and pre-operative grade of OA?
Between September 2012 and January 2014, these investigators treated 33 patients with percutaneous calcium phosphate injections; 25 satisfied this study inclusion criteria; of those, 3 were lost to follow-up and 22 (88 %; 13 men, 9 women) with a median age of 53.5 years (range of 38 to 70) were available for retrospective chart review and telephone evaluation at a minimum of 6 months (median of 12 months; range of 6 to 24).
The general indications for this procedure were the presence of sub-chondral bone marrow edema lesions observed on MR images involving weight-bearing regions of the knee associated with localized pain on weight-bearing and palpation and failure to respond to conservative therapy (greater than 3 months). Patients with pain secondary to extensive non-degenerative meniscal tears with a flipped displaced component at the level of bone marrow edema lesions, or with mechanical axis deviation greater than 8° were excluded. All patients had Grades III or IV chondral lesions (modified Outerbridge grading system for chondromalacia) overlying MRI-identified sub-chondral bone marrow edema lesions. Percutaneous calcium phosphate injection was performed on the medial tibial condyle (15 patients), the medial femoral condyle (5 patients), and the lateral femoral condyle (2 patients). Concomitant partial meniscectomy was performed in 18 patients. Pre-operative and post-operative scores from the KOOS and the Tegner Lysholm Knee Scoring Scale were analyzed. For patients available for follow-up, the outcome scores improved after treatment. The KOOS improved from a mean of 39.5 ± 21.8 to 71.3 ± 23 (95 % CI: 18.6 to 45.2; p < 0.001) and the Tegner and Lysholm score from 48 ± 15.1 to 77.5 ± 20.6 (95 % CI: 18.8 to 40.2; p < 0.001). However, 7 of the 22 patients had poor clinical outcomes as assessed by the Tegner Lysholm Knee Scoring Scale, whereas 3 had fair results, 5 had good results, and 7 had excellent results. The post-operative Tegner Lysholm score was inversely related to the pre-operative Kellgren-Lawrence OA grade (R(2) = 0.292; F (1.20) = 9.645; p = 0.006). These researchers found no relationship between outcome scores and age, sex, or BMI. The authors concluded that in a study that would have been expected to present a best-case analysis (short-term follow-up, loss to follow-up of patients with potentially unsatisfactory results, and use of invasive co-treatments including arthroscopic debridement), the authors found that percutaneous calcium phosphate injection in patients with symptomatic bone marrow edema lesions of the knee and advanced OA yielded poor results in a concerning proportion of patients. Based on these results, these investigators advised against the use of percutaneous calcium phosphate injections for patients with advanced osteoarthritic changes.
Arthroscopic Meniscal Surgery
In a comparative, prospective, cohort study, Thorlund and co-workers (2017) compared patient reported outcomes from before surgery to 52 weeks after surgery between individuals undergoing arthroscopic partial meniscectomy (APM) for traumatic meniscal tears and those for degenerative meniscal tears. This study was performed in 4 public orthopedic departments in the Region of Southern Denmark; subject were recruited between February 1, 2013 and January 31, 2014, and at 1 of the original 4 hospitals from February 1, 2014 to January 31, 2015. Subjects were selected from Knee Arthroscopy Cohort Southern Denmark, aged 18 to 55 years, and undergoing APM for a traumatic or degenerative meniscal tear (defined by a combination of age and symptom onset). Both participant groups underwent APM for a meniscal tear, with operating surgeons recording relevant information on knee pathology. Patient reported outcomes were recorded via online questionnaires. Primary outcome was the average between-group difference in change on 4 of 5 subscales of the KOOS. The 4 subscales covered pain, symptoms, sport and recreational function, and quality of life (KOOS4). A 95 % CI excluding differences greater than 10 KOOS points between groups was interpreted as absence of a clinically meaningful difference. Analyses adjusted for age, sex, and BMI. A total of 397 eligible adults (42 % women) with a traumatic or degenerative meniscal tear (n = 141, mean age of 38.7 years (SD 10.9); n = 256, 46.6 years (6.4); respectively) were included in the main analysis. At 52 weeks after APM, 55 (14 %) patients were lost to follow-up. Statistically, participants with degenerative meniscal tears had a significantly larger improvement in KOOS4 scores than those with traumatic tears (adjusted between-group difference -5.1 (95 % CI: -8.9 to -1.3); p = 0.008). In the analysis including KOOS4 score at all time-points, a significant time-by-group interaction was observed in both the unadjusted (p = 0.025) and adjusted analysis (p = 0.024), indicating better self-reported outcomes in participants with degenerative tears. However, the difference between groups was at no time-point considered clinically meaningful. The authors concluded that these results questioned the current tenet that patients with traumatic meniscal tears experience greater improvements in patient reported outcomes after APM than patients with degenerative tears.
Tornbjerg and colleagues (2017) stated that the relationship between meniscal tears and other joint pathologies with patient-reported symptoms is not clear. These researchers investigated associations between structural knee pathologies identified at surgery with pre-operative knee pain and function in patients undergoing arthroscopic meniscal surgery. This study included 443 patients from the Knee Arthroscopy Cohort Southern Denmark (KACS), a prospective cohort following patients 18 years or older undergoing arthroscopic meniscal surgery at 4 hospitals between February 1, 2013 and January 31, 2014. Patient-reported outcomes, including the KOOS, were obtained by online questionnaires prior to surgery. Knee pathology was assessed by the operating surgeons using a modified version of the International Society of Arthroscopy, Knee Surgery and Orthopedic Sports Medicine (ISAKOS) classification of meniscal tears questionnaire, supplemented with information extracted from surgery reports. Following hypothesis-driven pre-selection of candidate variables, backward elimination regressions were performed to investigate associations between patient-reported outcomes and structural knee pathologies. Regression models only explained a small proportion of the variability in self-reported pain and function (adjusted R2 = 0.10 to 0.12) and this association was mainly driven by age, gender and BMI. The authors concluded that specific meniscal pathology and other structural joint pathologies found at meniscal surgery were not associated with pre-operative self-reported pain and function in patients with meniscal tears questioning inferences made about a direct relationship between these. They stated that these findings questioned the role of arthroscopic surgery to address structural pathology as a means to improve patient-reported outcomes in patients having surgery for a meniscal tear.
Monk and associates (2017) stated that arthroscopic surgery of the knee is one of the most frequently performed orthopedic procedures; 1/3 of these procedures are performed for meniscal injuries. It is essential that this commonly performed surgery be supported by robust evidence. In a systematic review, these investigators compared the effectiveness of arthroscopic surgery for meniscal injuries in all populations. These researchers carried out an online search for RCTs and systematic reviews (SRs) that compared therapeutic options for meniscal injury. The following databases (inception to April 2015) were included in the search: CENTRAL; Medline; Embase; NHS Evidence; National Guideline Clearing House, Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects, Health Technology Assessment; ISRCTN; Clinicaltrials.gov; WHO trials platform. Only studies whose participants were selected on the basis of meniscal injury were included; no restrictions were placed on patient demographics. Two independent reviewers applied AMSTAR (A Measurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews) criteria for SRs and the Cochrane Collaboration risk-of-bias tool for RCTs. A total of 9 RCTs and 8 SRs were included in the review. No difference was found between arthroscopic meniscal debridement compared with non-operative management as a first-line treatment strategy for patients with knee pain and a degenerative meniscal tear (MD: Knee injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score, 1.6 [95 % CI: -2.2 to 5.2], pain VAS, -0.06 [95 % CI: -0.28 to 0.15]). Some evidence was found to indicate that patients with resistant mechanical symptoms who initially fail non-operative management may benefit from meniscal debridement. No studies compared meniscal repair with meniscectomy or non-operative management. Initial evidence suggested that meniscal transplant might be favorable in certain patient groups. The authors concluded that further evidence is needed to determine which patient groups have good outcomes from each intervention. Given the current widespread use of arthroscopic meniscal surgeries, more research is needed to support evidence-based practice in meniscal surgery in order to reduce the numbers of ineffective interventions and support potentially beneficial surgery.
In a multi-center, participant-blinded and outcome assessor-blinded RCT, Sihvonen and colleagues (2018) examined if APM is superior to placebo surgery in the treatment of patients with degenerative tear of the medial meniscus. This trial included a total of 146 adults, aged 35 to 65 years, with knee symptoms consistent with degenerative medial meniscus tear and no knee osteoarthritis; they were randomized to APM or placebo surgery. The primary outcome was the between-group difference in the change from baseline in the WOMET and Lysholm knee scores and knee pain after exercise at 24 months after surgery. Secondary outcomes included the frequency of un-blinding of the treatment-group allocation, participants' satisfaction, impression of change, return to normal activities, the incidence of serious AEs (SAEs) and the presence of meniscal symptoms in clinical examination. Two subgroup analyses, assessing the outcome on those with mechanical symptoms and those with unstable meniscus tears, were also carried out. In the intention-to-treat analysis, there were no significant between-group differences in the mean changes from baseline to 24 months in WOMET score: 27.3 in the APM group as compared with 31.6 in the placebo-surgery group (between-group difference, -4.3; 95 % CI: -11.3 to 2.6); Lysholm knee score: 23.1 and 26.3, respectively (-3.2; 95 5 CI: -8.9 to 2.4) or knee pain after exercise, 3.5 and 3.9, respectively (-0.4; 95 % CI: -1.3 to 0.5). There were no statistically significant differences between the 2 groups in any of the secondary outcomes or within the analyzed subgroups. The authors concluded that in this 2-year follow-up of patients without knee osteoarthritis but with symptoms of a degenerative medial meniscus tear, the outcomes after APM were no better than those after placebo surgery. No evidence could be found to support the prevailing ideas that patients with presence of mechanical symptoms or certain meniscus tear characteristics or those who have failed initial conservative treatment are more likely to benefit from APM. Moreover, they stated that given the mounting evidence, anyone still advocating APMs should promptly launch methodologically rigorous, practical, real-world trial(s) embedded in the flow of practice to prove that APM truly works in the asserted subgroups of patients.
Commenting on the afore-mentioned study by Sihvonen et al (2018), Coblyn (2018) stated that “Researchers reported in 2014 that, in a randomized trial of 146 patients (age range, 35-65) with knee pain and non-traumatic meniscal tears without osteoarthritis, those who underwent arthroscopic partial meniscectomies showed no benefit after 1 year compared with those who underwent sham procedures. Both groups showed marked improvement in knee pain-related scores, and no significant differences were observed between groups in secondary outcomes (NEJM JW Gen Med Feb 15 2014 and N Engl J Med 2013; 369:2515). Now, the same investigators report a 2-year follow-up. After 2 years of follow-up, no differences between groups were noted in any of the standardized knee pain scores. In addition, all secondary outcome scores were similar, including in subgroups of patients with mechanical symptoms and certain meniscus tear characteristics. This paper extends the conclusion reported earlier: No significant difference in outcomes was found between meniscectomy and a sham procedure among patients with knee pain and meniscal tears without osteoarthritis. Time and physical therapy should remain the initial treatments for patients like these”.
In a multi-center, participant-blinded and outcome assessor-blinded, placebo-surgery RCT, Sihvonen et al (2018) examined if APM is superior to placebo surgery in the treatment of patients with degenerative tear of the medial meniscus. This trial involved 146 adults, aged 35 to 65 years, with knee symptoms consistent with degenerative medial meniscus tear and no knee OA. Subjects were randomized to APM or placebo surgery. The primary outcome was the between-group difference in the change from baseline in the Western Ontario Meniscal Evaluation Tool (WOMET) and Lysholm knee scores and knee pain after exercise at 24 months after surgery. Secondary outcomes included the frequency of un-blinding of the treatment-group allocation, participants' satisfaction, impression of change, return to normal activities, the incidence of SAEs and the presence of meniscal symptoms in clinical examination. Two subgroup analyses, assessing the outcome on those with mechanical symptoms and those with unstable meniscus tears, were also carried out. In the intention-to-treat (ITT) analysis, there were no significant between-group differences in the mean changes from baseline to 24 months in WOMET score: 27.3 in the APM group as compared with 31.6 in the placebo-surgery group (between-group difference, -4.3; 95 % CI: -11.3 to 2.6); Lysholm knee score: 23.1 and 26.3, respectively (-3.2; -8.9 to 2.4) or knee pain after exercise, 3.5 and 3.9, respectively (-0.4; -1.3 to 0.5). There were no statistically significant differences between the 2 groups in any of the secondary outcomes or within the analyzed subgroups. The authors concluded that in this 2-year follow-up of patients without knee OA but with symptoms of a degenerative medial meniscus tear, the outcomes after APM were no better than those after placebo surgery. No evidence could be found to support the prevailing ideas that patients with presence of mechanical symptoms or certain meniscus tear characteristics or those who have failed initial conservative treatment are more likely to benefit from APM. These investigators stated that these findings supported the evolving consensus that degenerative meniscus tear represents an (early) sign of knee OA, rather than a clinical entity on its own, and accordingly, caution should be exercised in referring patients with knee pain and suspicion of a degenerative meniscal tear to MRI examination or APM, even after a failed attempt of conservative treatment.
Lizaur-Utrilla and colleagues (2019) noted that there is controversy regarding the benefit of APM for degenerative lesions in middle-aged patients. In a cohort study, these researchers compared satisfaction with APM between middle-aged patients with no or mild knee OA and a degenerative meniscal tear and those with a traumatic tear. A comparative prospective study at 5 years of middle-aged patients (45 to 60 years old) with no or mild OA undergoing APM for degenerative (n = 115) or traumatic (n = 143) tears was conducted. Patient satisfaction was measured by a 5-point Likert scale and functional outcomes by the KOOS and WOMAC. Uni-variate and multi-variate regression analyses were used to identify factors correlating with patient-reported satisfaction at 5 years post-operatively. Baseline patient characteristics were not different between groups. At the 5-year evaluation, the satisfaction rate in the traumatic and degenerative groups was 68.5 % versus 71.3 %, respectively (p = 0.365). Patient satisfaction was significantly associated with functional outcomes (r = 0.69; p = 0.024). In the degenerative group, 43 patients (37.4 %) had OA progression to K-L grade 2 or 3, but only 24 patients (20.8 %) had a symptomatic knee at final follow-up. Multi-variate regression analysis for patient dissatisfaction at 5-year follow-up showed the following significant independent factors: female sex (odds ratio [OR], 1.6 [95 % CI: 1.1 to 2.3]; p = 0.018), BMI greater than 30 kg/m2 (OR, 2.6 [95 % CI: 1.7 to 4.9]; p = 0.035), lateral meniscal tears (OR, 0.6 [95 % CI: 0.1 to 0.9]; p = 0.039), and OA progression to K-L grade greater than or equal to 2 at final follow-up (OR, 1.4 [95 % CI: 1.2 to 2.6]; p = 0.014). At the final evaluation, there were no significant differences between groups in pain scores (p = 0.648), WOMAC scores (p = 0.083), or KOOS-4 scores (p = 0.187). Likewise, there were no significant differences in the KOOS sub-scores for pain (p = 0.144), symptoms (p = 0.097), or sports/recreation (p = 0.150). Although the degenerative group had significantly higher sub-scores for activities of daily living (p = 0.001) and quality of life (QOL; p = 0.004), the differences were considered not clinically meaningful. The authors concluded that there were no meaningful differences in patient satisfaction or clinical outcomes between patients with traumatic and degenerative tears and no or mild OA. Predictors of dissatisfaction with APM were female sex, obesity, and lateral meniscal tears. These investigators stated that these findings suggested that APM was an effective medium-term option to relieve pain and recover function in middle-aged patients with degenerative meniscal tears, without obvious OA, and with failed prior physical therapy. Level of evidence = II.
Karpinski et al (2019) performed a systematic review of prospective RCTs comparing arthroscopic treatment for knee OA with either other therapeutic interventions or sham treatment. A systematic search for RCT about arthroscopic treatment (AT) for knee OA was performed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Arthroscopic treatment included procedures such as lavage, debridement and partial meniscectomy of the knee. Data source was PubMed central. A total of 14 articles were included; 5 studies compared interventive AT with either sham surgery, lavage or diagnostic arthroscopy; 9 trials compared AT with another active intervention (exercise, steroid injection, hyaluronic acid injection). In 10 trials, the clinical scores improved after arthroscopic treatment of knee OA in comparison to the baseline. In 7 trials, there was a significant difference in the final clinical outcome with higher scores for patients after arthroscopic OA treatment in comparison to a control group. In 4 trials, the ITT analysis revealed no significant difference between arthroscopic OA treatment and the control group. In 1 of those trials, which compared APM with exercise, the cross-over rate from exercise to AT was 34.9 %. The clinical scores of cross-over patients improved after APM. In 1 study, the subgroup analysis revealed that patients with tears of the anterior 2/3 of the medial meniscus or any lateral meniscus tear had a higher probability of improvement after arthroscopic surgery than did patients with other intra-articular pathology. There was no difference in the side effects between patients with AT and the control group. Despite acceptable scores in the methodological quality assessment, significant flaws could be found in all studies. These flaws included bad description of the exact surgical technique or poor control of post-operative use of NSAID. The authors concluded that results of RCTs comparing AT with other therapeutic options were heterogeneous; AT in OA patients is not useless because there is evidence that a subgroup of patients with non-traumatic flap tears of the medial meniscus or patients with crystal arthropathy benefit from arthroscopy. These researchers stated that the results of these randomized studies, however, should be interpreted with care because in many studies, the use of other therapeutic variables such as pain killers or NSAIDs was not controlled or reported.
- all patients (any type of meniscal tear with or without radiographic OA);
- patients with any type of meniscal tear in a non-OA knee; and
- patients with an unstable meniscal tear in a non-OA knee.
These investigators carried out a search of Medline, Embase, CENTRAL, Scopus, Web of Science, Clinicaltrials.gov and ISRCTN was performed, unlimited by language or publication date (inception to October 18, 2018); (randomized controlled trial [RCTs] performed in adults with meniscal tears, comparing APM versus
- non-surgical intervention;
- pharmacological intervention;
- surgical intervention; and
- no intervention were selected for analysis.
A total of 10 trials were identified: 7 compared with non-surgery, 1 pharmacological and 2 surgical. Findings were limited by small sample size, small number of trials and cross-over of participants to APM from comparator interventions. In group A (all patients) receiving APM versus non-surgical intervention (physiotherapy), at 6 to 12 months, there was a small mean improvement in knee pain (SMD 0.22 [95 % CI: 0.03 to 0.40]; 5 trials, 943 patients; I2 48 %; Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation [GRADE]: low), knee-specific QOL (SMD 0.43 [95 % CI: 0.10 to 0.75]; 3 trials, 350 patients; I2 56 %; GRADE: low) and knee function (SMD 0.18 [95 % CI: 0.04 to 0.33]; 6 trials, 1,050 patients; I2 27 %; GRADE: low). When the analysis was restricted to people without OA (group B), there was a small-to-moderate improvement in knee pain (SMD 0.35 [95 % CI: 0.04 to 0.66]; 3 trials, 402 patients; I2 58 %; GRADE: very low), knee-specific QOL (SMD 0.59 [95 % CI: 0.11 to 1.07]; 2 trials, 244 patients; I2 71 %; GRADE: low) and knee function (SMD 0.30 [95 % CI: 0.06 to 0.53]; 4 trials, 507 patients; I2 44 %; GRADE: very low). There was no improvement in knee pain, function or QOL in patients receiving APM compared with placebo surgery at 6 to 12 months in group A or B (pain: SMD 0.08 [95 % CI: -0.24 to 0.41]; 1trial, 146 patients; GRADE: low; function: SMD -0.08 [95 % CI: -0.41 to 0.24]; 1 trial, 146 patients; GRADE: high; QOL: SMD 0.05 [95 % CI: -0.27 to 0.38]; 1 trial; 146 patients; GRADE: high). No trials were identified for people in group C. The authors concluded that performing APM in all patients with knee pain and a meniscal tear is not appropriate, and surgical treatment should not be considered the first-line intervention. There may, however, be a small-to-moderate benefit from APM compared with physiotherapy for patients without OA. No trial has been limited to patients failing non-operative treatment or patients with an unstable meniscal tear in a non-arthritic joint; research is needed to establish the value of APM in this population.
Balneotherapy for the Treatment of Osteoarthritis of the Knee
In a meta-analysis, Matsumoto and colleagues (2017) examined the effect of balneotherapy on relieving pain and stiffness and improving physical function, compared to controls, among patients with knee OA. These investigators searched electronic databases for eligible studies published from 2004 to December 31, 2016, with language restrictions of English or Japanese. They screened publications in Medline, Embase, Cochrane library, and the Japan Medical Abstracts Society Database using two approaches, MeSH terms and free words. Studies that examined the effect of balneotherapy for treating knee OA of a greater than or equal to 2-week duration were included; WOMAC scores were used as the outcome measure. A total of 102 publications were assessed according to the exclusion criteria of the study; 8 clinical trial studies, which comprised a total of 359 cases and 375 controls, were included in this meta-analysis. The meta-analysis analyzed improvement in WOMAC score at the final follow-up visit, which varied from 2 to 12 months post-intervention. This meta-analysis indicated that balneotherapy was clinically effective in relieving pain and stiffness, and improving function, as assessed by WOMAC score, compared to controls. However, there was high heterogeneity (88 to 93 %). The authors concluded that it is possible that balneotherapy may reduce pain and stiffness, and improve function, in individuals with knee OA, although the quality of current publications contributed to the heterogeneity observed in this meta-analysis.
Furthermore, UpToDate reviews on “Management of knee osteoarthritis” (Deveza and Bennell, 2018a) and “Management of moderate to severe knee osteoarthritis” (Deveza and Bennell, 2018b) do not mention balneotherapy as a therapeutic option.
Bone Marrow Aspirate Concentrate
Shapiro and colleagues (2017) hypothesized that bone marrow aspirate concentrate (BMAC) is feasible, safe, and effective for the treatment of pain due to mild-to-moderate degenerative joint disease of the knee. In this prospective, single-blind, placebo-controlled trial, a total of 25 patients with bilateral knee pain from bilateral OA were randomized to receive BMAC into 1 knee and saline placebo into the other. A total of 52 ml of bone marrow was aspirated from the iliac crests and concentrated in an automated centrifuge. The resulting BMAC was combined with platelet-poor plasma for an injection into the arthritic knee and was compared with a saline injection into the contralateral knee, thereby utilizing each patient as his or her own control. Safety outcomes, pain relief, and function as measured by Osteoarthritis Research Society International (OARSI) measures and the VAS score were tracked initially at 1 week, 3 months, and 6 months after the procedure. There were no serious adverse events from the BMAC procedure; OARSI Intermittent and Constant Osteoarthritis Pain and VAS pain scores in both knees decreased significantly from baseline at 1 week, 3 months, and 6 months (p ≤ 0.019 for all). Pain relief, although dramatic, did not differ significantly between treated knees (p > 0.09 for all). The authors concluded that early results showed that BMAC is safe to use and is a reliable and viable cellular product. Study patients experienced a similar relief of pain in both BMAC- and saline-treated arthritic knees. They stated that further study is needed to determine the mechanisms of action, duration of efficacy, optimal frequency of treatments, and regenerative potential.
Combination of High Tibial Osteotomy and Autologous Bone Marrow Derived Cell Implantation
Cavallo and colleagues (2018) stated that high tibial osteotomy (HTO) is a recommended treatment for medial compartment knee OA. Newer cartilage regenerative procedures may add benefits to the results of HTO. In this prospective study, these researchers examined the safety and also results of HTO associated with autologous bone marrow derived cells (BMDC) implantation in relatively young and middle aged active individuals with early OA of the knee. A total of 24 patients (mean age of 47.9 years) with varus knee and symptomatic medial compartment OA were treated with medial opening-wedge HTO in conjunction with implantation of BMDC into the chondral lesions. The clinical outcomes were assessed by International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC), KOOS, VAS, and Tegner scores. The radiographic studies were performed pre-operatively and at follow-ups. No major complications were seen during the operations and post-operative follow-ups. All clinical scores were significantly improved for the IKDC score (from 32.7 ± 15 to 64 ± 21) (p < 0.005), KOOS score (from 30 ± 11 to 68 ± 19) (p < 0.005), VAS (from 7.5 to 3) and Tegner score (from 1.2 to 2.1) (p < 0.004). The authors concluded that HTO in conjunction with BMDC implantation is a safe and feasible treatment and is associated with good results in short-term follow-up for early medial compartment OA in varus knees. Level of evidence: IV.
The authors stated that drawbacks of this preliminary study were the lack of control group, short-term follow-up (2 to 3 years), absence of second look arthroscopy and histological assessment of the regenerated cartilage. They stated that further RCTs are needed to confirm the clinical advantage of this procedure in early osteoarthritic patients.
Extracorporeal Shock Wave Therapy
Kang and colleagues (2018) noted that bone marrow edema (BME) represents a reversible but highly painful finding in MRI of patients with knee OA. In a retrospective study, these researchers evaluated the efficacy of extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT) on painful BME in OA of the knee. This study focused on people who had early-to-mid stage OA with knee pain and MRI findings of BME. Patients who underwent ESWT or prescribed alendronate treatment in the authors’ department were analyzed. Knee pain and function were measured using the VAS for pain and the WOMAC, respectively. The degree of BME was measured with MRI scans. A total of 126 patients who received ESWT treatment (Group A, n = 82) or alendronate treatment (Group B, n = 44) were included. All patients were followed-up clinically and radiographically for a minimum of 12 months. The mean follow-up was 23.5 months (range of 12 to 38 months). The VAS and WOMAC score decreased more significantly after treatment in Group A than that in Group B (p < 0.01) within 3 months. In 6-month MRI follow-ups, there was higher incidence of distinct reduction and complete regression of BME of the affected knee in Group A than that in Group B (p < 0.01). The authors concluded that ESWT is an effective, reliable, and non-invasive treatment in patients with painful BME in OA of the knee followed by a rapid normalization of the MRI appearance. It has the potential to shorten the natural course of this disease. Moreover, they stated that multi-center RCTs with long-term outcomes are needed to validate this conclusion.
The authors stated that this study had several drawback. The mechanisms and indications of ESWT have not been very clear. The indications are mainly based on the supported literatures and previous clinical observation. This study was limited by virtue of the retrospective analysis. There was no randomized and blinded control group with conservative treatment in this study. Intravenous prostacyclin could achieve a reduction in BME, with a considerable improvement of painful symptoms, by improving tissue blood supply in a variety of situations through multiple mechanisms, such as vasodilatation and inhibition of platelet aggregation. It is that pain relief and rapid regression of BME due to the action of prostacyclin in reducing capillary permeability and dilating vessels. Based on this, all patients in both groups were treated with combined alprostadil in this study. The functional improvement in the knee was assessed subjectively using the VAS and functional scores, but no objective measures were utilized. The follow-up time was relatively short (23.5 months). This study was only a pilot clinical study.
Intra-Articular Injections of Autologous Conditioned Serum
Zarringam and colleagues (2018) stated that Orthokin is an intra-articular autologous conditioned serum (ACS). Its use might have a beneficial biological effect on pain and function of OA in the knee. However, earlier studies lack any consensus on its clinical application and disease-modifying effect. In a prospective, cohort study, these investigators examined the long-term effect of Orthokin injection treatment on prevention of surgical treatment for end-stage knee OA. Patients of the previously published Orthokin cohort were contacted to examine if any intra-articular surgical intervention or osteotomy of the studied knee had taken place during the past decade. A log-rank test was performed to evaluate the differences in the survival distribution for the 2 types of intervention: Orthokin versus placebo. The survival distributions for the 2 interventions were not statistically significantly different, χ2(1) = 2.069, p = 0.150. After 7.5 ± 3.9 years, 46.3 % of the placebo and 40.3 % of the Orthokin group had been treated surgically. The authors concluded that the use of Orthokin in knee OA patients did not result in a delay regarding surgical treatment. The intra-articular use of Orthokin did not appear to prevent or delay surgical intervention at 10 years after treatment for end-stage knee OA.
Percutaneous Autologous Fat Injections
In a case-series study, Adriani and colleagues (2017) evaluated the safety and efficacy of autologous aspirated and purified fat tissue injected percutaneously into the knee joint for the treatment of symptomatic OA. These researchers reviewed 30 patients, who received an autologous percutaneous fat injection for the treatment of knee OA from January 2012 to March 2015. Mean patients' age was 63.3 ± 5.3 years (range of 50 to 80 years); BMI was 25.1 ± 1.7. Clinical evaluation was based on pain VAS and WOMAC score for functional and subjective assessment. These investigators also noted the adverse reactions and the consumption of NSAIDs in the post-treatment period. All patients reported improvements with respect to pain: average VAS was 7.7 ± 1.2 at baseline, 5.2 ± 0.2 at 1-month follow-up, and 4.3 ± 1 at 3-month follow-up. A slight deterioration (5.0 ± 1.1) was evidenced at 1 year. Total WOMAC score was 89.9 ± 1.7 at baseline, 66.3 ± 1 at 1 month, 68.6 ± 1.7 at 3 months, and 73.2 ± 1.8 at 12 months of follow-up. The authors concluded that these preliminary findings suggested that percutaneous autologous fat injections are a valid therapeutic option for knee OA. Level of Evidence = IV. This was a small case-series study (n =30) with short-term follow-up (1 year). These preliminary findings need to be validated by well-designed studies with long-term follow-up.
Stem Cell Therapy
In a cases-control study, Koh and Choi (2012) examined if isolated mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) derived from the infra-patellar fat pad could effectively improve clinical results when percutaneously injected into arthritic knees. A total of 25 stem cell injections combined with arthroscopic debridement were administered to patients with knee OA. A mean of 1.89 × 10(6) stem cells were prepared with approximately 3.0 ml of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and injected in the selected knees of patients in the study group. The mean Lysholm, Tegner activity scale, and VAS scores of patients in the study group improved significantly by the last follow-up visit. No major adverse events related to the injections were observed during the treatment and follow-up periods. The results were compared between the study and control groups, in which the patients had undergone arthroscopic debridement and PRP injection without stem cells. Although the pre-operative mean Lysholm, Tegner activity scale, and VAS scores of the study group were significantly poorer than those of the control group, the clinical results at the last follow-up visit were similar and not significantly different between the 2 groups. The authors concluded that the short-term results of this study are encouraging and show that infra-patellar fat pad-derived MSC therapy with intra-articular injections is safe, and provides assistance in reducing pain and improving function in patients with knee OA. These preliminary findings need to be validated by well-designed studies.
Mei and associates (2017) stated that MSC-based cell therapy is a promising avenue for OA treatment. These researchers evaluated the efficacy of intra-articular injections of culture-expanded allogenic adipose tissue-derived stem cells (ADSCs) for the treatment of anterior cruciate ligament transection (ACLT)-induced rat OA model. The paracrine effects of major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-unmatched ADSCs on chondrocytes were investigated in-vitro. Rats were divided into an OA group that underwent ACLT surgery and a sham-operated group that did not undergo ACLT surgery. Four weeks after surgery mild OA was induced in the OA group. Subsequently, the OA rats were randomly divided into ADSC and control groups. A single dose of 1 × 106 ADSCs suspended in 60 μL phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) was intraarticularly injected into the rats of the ADSC group. The control group received only 60 μL PBS. Progression of OA was evaluated macroscopically and histologically at 8 and 12 weeks after surgery. ADSC treatment did not cause any adverse local or systemic reactions. The degeneration of articular cartilage was significantly weaker in the ADSC group compared to that in the control group at both 8 and 12 weeks. Chondrocytes were co-cultured with MHC-unmatched ADSCs in trans-wells to assess the paracrine effects of ADSCs on chondrocytes. Co-culture with ADSCs counteracted the IL-1β-induced mRNA up-regulation of the extracellular matrix-degrading enzymes MMP-3 and MMP-13 and the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 in chondrocytes. Importantly, ADSCs increased the expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 in chondrocytes. The authors concluded that the findings of this study indicated that the intra-articular injection of culture-expanded allogenic ADSCs attenuated cartilage degeneration in an experimental rat OA model without inducing any adverse reactions; MHC-unmatched ADSCs protected chondrocytes from inflammatory factor-induced damage. The paracrine effects of ADSCs on OA chondrocytes are at least part of the mechanism by which ADSCs exert their therapeutic activity. Moreover, they stated that further studies are needed to validate this hypothesis.
Fan and colleagues (2018) examined the effect and mechanism of pre-cartilaginous stem cells (PSCs) engraftment-inducing tissue repair in a knee OA rat model. Knee OA model was constructed in Sprague Dawley (SD) rats by partial removal of the medial meniscus of the right knee; PSCs were engrafted by injecting PSCs into the right knee cavity. At 4 and 8 weeks after model construction, the serum levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and IL-6 were assessed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining was performed to assess the histopathology of synovial membrane and cartilage. Western blot analysis was used to assess Notch1, Bcl-2 and Bax levels in the articular cartilage. At 4 and 8 weeks, OA rats demonstrated significantly higher IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6 levels than normal rats (p < 0.05), whereas PSCs treatment prominently attenuated IL-1β up-regulation (p < 0.05). In OA rats, the number of chondrocytes dramatically decreased over time in OA rats, with disruption of chondrocytes organization and cell layers. PSCs alleviated the deterioration of cartilage, as evidenced by the relatively smooth articular surface, distinct tidemark and clear cell layers. The model and treatment groups demonstrated substantially higher Notch1 expression. The Bcl-2/Bax value in the OA rats was lower than the control group, while PSCs treatment led to increase in Bcl-2/Bax value. The authors concluded that PSCs treatment down-regulated the expression of inflammatory cytokines, alleviating OA in the knee of rats. Notch1 signaling pathway plays an important role in this ameliorating effect of PSCs treatment. These findings need to be validated in well-designed studies with human subjects.
In a case-series study, Goncars and associates (2019) evaluated the main symptoms of knee OA and tissue structure changes after a single-dose bone marrow-derived mononuclear cell (BM MNC) intra-articular injection. Patients with knee OA Kellgren Lawrence (K-L) grade II and III received 1 injection of BM MNC. The clinical results were analyzed with the KOOS and KSS before, 3, 6, and 12 months after injection. Radiological evaluation was performed with a calibrated X-ray and MRI before and 6 to 7 months post-injection. A total of 34 knees were treated with BM MNC injections. Mean (± SD) age of patient group was 53.96 ± 14.15 years; there were 16 men, 16 women, KL grade II, 16; KL grade III, 18. The average injected count of BM MNCs was 45.56 ± 34.94 × 106 cells. At the end-point of 12 months, 65 % of patients still had minimal perceptible clinical improvement of the KOOS total score. The mean improvement of KOOS total score was +15.3 and of the KSS knee score was +21.45 and the function subscale +27.08 (p < 0.05) points. The Whole Organ Magnetic Resonance Imaging Score (WORMS) improved from 44.31 to 42.93 points (p < 0.05). No adverse effects after the BM-MNC injection were observed. The authors concluded that single-dose BM MNC partially reduced clinical signs of the knee OA stage II/III and in some cases, decreased degenerative changes in the joint building tissue over 12-month period. This was a small case-series study (n = 34 knees) with short-term follow-ups (12 months). These preliminary findings need to be validated by well-designed studies with long-term follow-up.
Wang et al (2022) provided a systematic analysis of the study design in knee OA pre-clinical studies, focusing on the characteristics of animal models and cell doses, and compared these to the characteristics of clinical trials using MSCs for the treatment of knee OA. These investigators carried out a systematic search using the PubMed, Web of Science, Ovid, and Embase electronic databases for research papers published between 2009 and 2020 on testing MSC treatment in OA animal models. The PubMed database as well as the ClinicalTrials.gov website were used to search for published studies reporting clinical trials of MSC therapy for knee OA. A total of 9,234 articles and 2 additional records were retrieved, of which 120 studies comprising pre-clinical and clinical studies were included for analysis. Among the pre-clinical studies, rats were the most commonly used species for modeling knee OA, and ACLT was the most commonly employed method for inducing OA. There was a correlation between the cell dose and body weight of the animal. In clinical trials, there was large variation in the dose of MSCs used to treat knee OA, ranging from 1 × 10(6) to 200 × 10(6) cells with an average of 37.91 × 10(6) cells. The authors concluded that MSC therapy has shown great potential in improving pain relief and tissue protection in both pre-clinical and clinical studies of knee OA. Moreover, these researchers stated that further high-quality pre-clinical and clinical studies are needed to examine the dose effectiveness relationship of MSC therapy and to translate the findings from pre-clinical studies to humans.
Shang et al (2023) noted that the success of stem cell therapy for knee osteoarthritis (KOA) in pre-clinical animal models has accelerated the pace of clinical translation; however, it remains unclear if the available evidence supports the clinical use of stem cells in the treatment of KOA. These researchers carried out a comprehensive evaluation of the safety and effectiveness of stem cell therapies. Using "stem cells" and "knee osteoarthritis" as the search terms, several databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane, Embase, and Clinicaltrials.gov, were searched on August 25, 2022, and updated on February 27, 2023. Clinical studies that reported adverse reactions (ARs) of stem cell therapy in KOA patients were included without limiting the type of studies. Quantitative systematic reviews of stem cell therapy for KOA that conducted meta-analysis were included. Two independent researchers performed literature screening and data extraction, and the evidence quality was examined according to the Institute of Health Economics and AMSTAR 2 criteria. A total of 50 clinical studies and 13 systematic reviews/meta-analyses (SRs/MAs) were included; 19 ARs were reported in 50 studies, including 5 knee-related ARs, 7 common ARs, and 7 other ARs. Some studies reported over 10 % prevalence of knee pain (24.5 %; 95 % CI: 14.7 % to 35.7 %), knee effusion (12.5 %; 95 % CI: 4.8 % to 22.5 %), and knee swelling (11.9 %; 95 % CI: 3.5 % to 23.5 %). Furthermore, 2 studies have reported cases of prostate cancer and breast tumors, respectively. However, these 2 studies suggested that stem cell therapy did not bring significant ARs to patients. SRs/MAs results revealed that stem cell therapy relieved pain in patients over time but did not improve knee function. However, current clinical studies have limited evidence regarding study objectives, test designs, and patient populations. Similarly, SRs/MAs have inadequate evidence regarding study design, risk of bias assessment, outcome description, comprehensive discussion, and potential conflicts of interest. The authors concluded that the ineffectiveness of stem cells, the risk of potential complications, and the limited quality of evidence from current studies precluded any recommendation for using stem cell products in patients with KOA. Clinical translation of stem cell therapies remains baseless and should be cautiously approached until more robust evidence is available.
Tang et al (2024) KOA is a debilitating degenerative joint ailment afflicting millions of patients. Numerous studies have examined the effectiveness of MSCs derived from various sources for the treatment of KOA; however, direct comparisons are scarce and inconsistent. In addition, network meta-analysis (NMA) conclusions require updating, while the safety of MSCs therapy remains contentious. In a systematic review and network meta-analysis, these investigators examined therapeutic approaches entailing MSCs from different sources in patients with KOA via RCTs and cohort studies. They carried out a systematic literature review to identify RCTs and cohort studies comparing different sources of MSCs in KOA patients. A randomized effects network meta-analysis was used to concurrently evaluate both direct and indirect comparisons across all protocols. The NMA included 16 RCTS and reported 1,005 participants. Adipose-derived MScs (AD-MSCs) were the most effective treatment, showing significant improvements in the VAS, the SF-36 scale, the IKDC subjective scores, and the KOOS. The probabilities are P = 85.3, P = 70.5, P = 88, and P = 87, respectively. Compared with placebo, AD-MSCs resulted in a VAS Score (SMD 0.97; 95 % CI: 0.37 to 1.57), IKDC subjective scores (SMD -0.71; 95 % CI: -1.20 to -0.21) was significantly reduced. Umbilical cord-derived MSCs (UC-MSCs) showed significant improvements in the WOMAC (P = 91.4). Compared with placebo, UC-MSCs had a higher WOMAC Score (SMD 1.65; 95 % CI: 0.27 to 3.03) and ranked 1st. Compared with MSCs, placebo emerged as the safer option (P = 74.9), with a notable reduction in AEs associated with HA treatment (RR 0.77; 95 % CI: 0.61 to 0.97). AD-MSCs were found to have the least favorable impact on AEs with a probability of P = 13.3. The authors concluded that this network meta-analysis established that MSCs offered pain relief and enhanced various knee scores in KOA patients compared to conventional treatment. It also identified other therapeutic avenues warranting further investigation via high-quality studies. Nonetheless, it underscored the necessity to emphasize the potential complications and safety concerns associated with MSCs.
The authors stated that this study had several drawbacks. First, the selection of autologous or allogeneic MSCs is a key factor that could affect the way in which they work; thus, the results of the study. Second, the sample size, especially in studies reporting the safety of MSCs from various sources in KOA, was relatively small, which could potentially impact the study results due to the limited number of available studies. Third, the diversity of MSCs sources in studies reporting AEs was somewhat lacking, and future trials should aim to provide comprehensive safety reports encompassing various MSCs sources.
Advanced Arthritis Relief Protocol (Including Stem Cell Therapy)
The 2019 American College of Rheumatology/Arthritis Foundation’s guideline on “The management of osteoarthritis of the hand, hip, and knee” (Kolasinski et al, 2020) strongly recommended against stem cell injections in patients with knee and/or hip OA. It stated that there is concern regarding the heterogeneity and lack of standardization in available preparations of stem cell injections, as well as techniques used. This treatment has not been evaluated in hand OA; thus, no recommendation is made with regard to OA of the hand.
In a systematic review and meta-analysis, Dai and colleagues (2021) examined the safety and efficacy of intra-articular mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) injections for the treatment of knee OA. These researchers carried out a systematic literature search in PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and the Cochrane Library through April 2020 to identify level I RCTs that evaluated the clinical efficacy of MSCs versus control treatments for knee OA. Outcomes were analyzed on an ITT basis with random-effects models. A total of 13 RCTs were included in the meta-analysis. Compared with placebo, there was no significant difference in VAS for pain (mean difference [MD] 1.62, 95 % CI: -0.60 to 3.85), WOMAC pain score (MD 1.88, 95 % CI: -0.21 to 3.98), WOMAC function score (MD -0.67, 95 % CI: -6.54 to 5.19), or WOMAC stiffness score (MD 0.64, 95 % CI: -0.86 to 2.14) for MSCs. Moreover, the smallest treatment effect of VAS for pain, WOMAC pain score, WOMAC function score, and WOMAC stiffness score did not exceed the minimum clinically important difference (MCID). Furthermore, there was no significant difference in percentage of patients crossing the MCID threshold between MSC and placebo groups for VAS for pain (relative risk [RR] 0.93, 95 % CI: 0.55 to 1.57) or WOMAC total score (RR 0.40, 95 % CI: 0.13 to 1.21). Compared with hyaluronic acid (HA), MSC injection was associated with significantly better improvement in VAS for pain (MD 2.00, 95 % CI: 0.94 to 3.07), WOMAC pain score (MD 4.58, 95 % CI: 0.49 to 8.67), WOMAC total score (MD 14.86, 95 % CI: 10.59 to 19.13), and WOMAC stiffness score (MD 1.85, 95 % CI: 0.02 to 3.69). However, the smallest treatment effect of VAS for pain, WOMAC pain score, WOMAC function score, and WOMAC stiffness score did not exceed the MCID. Moreover, there was no significant difference in percentage of patients crossing the MCID threshold between MSC and HA groups for WOMAC total score (RR 0.57, 95 % CI: 0.21 to 1.55). These investigators also found that MSCs did not increase AEs compared with HA and placebo. The authors concluded that intra-articular MSC injection was not found to be superior to placebo in pain relief and functional improvement for patients with symptomatic knee OA. These researchers stated that additional direct testing and combination trials of different type of cells, doses, and number of injections of MSCs are needed to further enhance clinical decision-making for patients with symptomatic knee OA. Level of Evidence = I.
Genicular Artery Embolization
In a systematic review, Casadaban and colleagues (2021) examined the published literature on genicular artery embolization (GAE) for the treatment of OA-related knee pain. Using 3 databases, a systematic review was carried out following PRISMA guidelines. Outcome measures included the VAS and the WOMAC. A total of 3 single-arm studies were included from an initial search yielding 305 results; 186 knees in 133 patients with either mild-to-moderate (174/186, 94 %) or severe (12/186, 6 %) OA underwent embolization with either imipenem/cilastatin sodium (159/186, 85 %) or embozene (27/186, 15 %). Technical success was 100 %. Average VAS improved from baseline at 1 day, 1 week, 1 month, 3 months, 4 months, 6 months, 1 year and 2 years (66.5 at baseline versus 33.5, 32.7, 33.8, 28.9, 29.0, 22.3, 14.8 and 14.0, respectively). Average WOMAC scores improved from baseline at 1, 3, 4, 6, 12 and 24 months (45.7 at baseline versus 24.0, 31.0, 14.8, 14.6, 8.2 and 6.2). Severe OA in 12 cases showed initially improved VAS; but was not sustained. Minor AEs such as erythema in the region of embolization (21/186, 11 %), puncture-site hematoma (18/186, 10 %), paresthesia (2/186, 1 %) and fever (1/186, 0.5 %) were reported. The authors concluded that limited single-arm studies reported GAE is promising for treating OA-related pain. Most treatments performed for mild-to-moderate OA demonstrated durable clinical responses from 6 months to 4 years. Limited data for severe OA suggested a non-durable response. These researchers stated that future studies should be standardized to facilitate comparison and control for placebo effect.
High-Intensity Laser Therapy
Song and colleagues (2020) noted that high-intensity laser therapy (HILT) has recently been used to control pain and symptom improvement in knee OA. In a systematic review and meta-analysis, these researchers examined the effectiveness of HILT in patients with knee OA. They carried out a search of articles in the Medline, Embase, Cochrane CENTRAL, and Web of Science databases up to March 2020 for RCTs investigating HILT intervention, placebo, or active intervention as comparator groups for alleviating pain in patients with knee OA. Two independent reviewers evaluated the methodological quality and extracted pain and functional outcomes using a pre-specified form. A meta-analysis was performed using an inverse-variance random effect model; heterogeneity was examined using Higgins I2 with p-values. A total of 6 RCTs were included in this meta-analysis. For VAS pain, 334 patients from 4 studies showed that HILT significantly decreased pain compared to the control (MD, -1.18; 95 % CI: -1.68 to -0.69). HILT significantly improved WOMAC stiffness (SMD -1.00; 95 % CI: -1.32 to -0.68) and function (SMD, -5.36; 95 % CI: -7.39 to -3.34) compared to the control. The authors concluded that the effectiveness of HILT on pain, stiffness, and function in patients with knee OA is promising; however, due to the limited number of studies, further RCTs with large, well-designed samples are needed.
Intra-Articular Botulinum Toxin Injections
The 2019 American College of Rheumatology/Arthritis Foundation’s guideline on “The management of osteoarthritis of the hand, hip, and knee” (Kolasinski et al, 2020) conditionally recommended against intra-articular botulinum toxin injections in patients with knee and/or hip OA. It noted that the small number of trials of intra-articular botulinum toxin treatment in knee or hip OA suggested a lack of efficacy. This treatment has not been evaluated in hand O; thus, no recommendation is made with regard to OA of the hand.
Intra-Articular Glucocorticoid Injections
Deyle and colleagues (2020) stated that both physical therapy and intra-articular injections of glucocorticoids have been shown to confer clinical benefit with respect to OA of the knee.
The 2019 American College of Rheumatology/Arthritis Foundation’s guideline on “The management of osteoarthritis of the hand, hip, and knee” (Kolasinski et al, 2020) strongly recommended intra-articular glucocorticoid injections for patients with knee and/or hip OA and conditionally recommended for patients with hand OA. It stated that trials of intra-articular glucocorticoid injections have demonstrated short-term efficacy in knee OA. Intra-articular glucocorticoid injection is conditionally, rather than strongly, recommended for hand OA given the lack of evidence specific to this anatomic location. There are insufficient data to judge the choice of short-acting over long-acting preparations or the use of low rather than high doses. A recent report raised the possibility that specific steroid preparations or a certain frequency of steroid injections may contribute to cartilage loss, but the Voting Panel was uncertain of the clinical significance of this finding, particularly since change in cartilage thickness was not associated with a worsening in pain, functioning, or other radiographic features.
Leukotape
Leukotape is a type of non-elastic tape, whereas Kinesio tape (KT) is a type of elastic tape.
Edmonds et al (2016) noted that knee OA is one of the most debilitating diseases associated with aging; and is estimated to affect 9 % of men and 18 % of women over 65 years of age. Knee OA affects the condylar surfaces of the joint and if left untreated would lead to the slow and painful degeneration of the joint and surrounding structures. With few non-invasive therapeutic options for OA patients, these investigators examined the effect of therapeutic taping on knee pain in combination with spatiotemporal, kinematic, kinetic and muscle activation measures. A total of 15 participants (10 males, 5 females) with radiographic diagnosed knee OA attended a single testing session and walked along at a self-selected pace under 3 different conditions (no tape, sham tape, therapeutic tape). The conditions were randomized within each testing session. Knee pain, lower limb biomechanics and muscle activation were analyzed using a 1-way repeated measures ANOVA to determine if any differences existed between the 3e taping conditions (α = 0.05). Therapeutic knee taping was shown to significantly reduce the self-reported levels of knee joint pain during straight line walking. No significant differences in spatiotemporal, knee kinetic, knee kinematic or lower limb muscle activation variables were observed between the taping conditions. The authors concluded that there is evidence supporting the use of therapeutic knee taping for the management of OA related knee pain. Moreover, these researchers stated that future research is recommended to better understand the complex acute neuro-musculoskeletal adaptations that explain these positive knee pain findings. This was a small study (n = 15); and neuromusculo-skeletal biomechanics changes were not observed following therapeutic knee taping. This study did not specific what type of therapeutic tape (elastic or non-elastic) was used.
In a systematic review and meta-analysis, Luo and Li (2021) examined if KT is better than placebo taping, non-elastic taping, or no taping in reducing chronic knee pain. PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, the Cochrane Central Library, and ClinicalTrials.gov were systematically searched up to October 20, 2020 for RCTs that used KT to treat chronic knee pain according to PRISMA guidelines. These researchers extracted the mean differences (MDs) and standard deviations (SDs) in pre-treatment and post-treatment for selected outcomes measured in the experimental and control groups for subsequent meta-analyses. A total of 8 studies involving 416 participants fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The results indicated that KT was better than other tapings (placebo taping or non-elastic taping) in the early 4 weeks. MD was -1.44 (95 % CI: -2.04 to -0.84, I2 = 49 %, p ≤ 0.01). Treatment methods that were performed for more than 6 weeks (0.16 (95 % CI: -0.35 to 0.68, I2 = 0 %, p = 0.53)) showed no significant difference in reducing pain. In studies in which VAS was measured, a positive effect was observed for KT combined with exercise program training (-3.27 (95 % CI: -3.69 to 2.85, I2 = 0 %, p < 0.05)). The authors concluded that KT is essential to relieve chronic knee pain and prevent massive use injuries in patients with chronic knee pain but not in a long-term effect; thus, KT could be temporarily used in practice for exercise or rehabilitation training.
The authors stated that this review had several drawbacks. First, some control groups might expose significant effects to relieve the symptoms for patients with chronic knee pain, which could not reflect the virtual effect of the KT group when compared with those control groups. Second, some studies were of insufficient quality to warrant data extraction to contrast. Third, these investigators might have excluded relevant but non-English studies. Fourth, significant heterogeneity was encountered; perhaps due to various regimens, doses, duration, center settings, populations enrolled, etc., calling for cautious interpretation of the results. Fifth, many of the studies suffered from significant sources of bias. Sixth, the effect in many occasions was evaluated by very few studies; thus, the evidence to support it was low. Finally, the PROSPRO registration code was not provided. Moreover, these researchers stated that it should be noted that the application of KT was initially designed for patients with chronic knee pain in the early stage; however, they found that the long-term effects of KT are not significant.
The 2019 American College of Rheumatology/Arthritis Foundation’s guideline on “The management of osteoarthritis of the hand, hip, and knee” (Kolasinski et al, 2020) conditionally recommended KT for patients with knee and/or first carpometacarpal (CMC) joint OA. It noted that KT allows ROM of the joint to which it is applied, in contrast to a brace, which maintains the joint in a fixed position. Published studies have examined various products and methods of application; and blinding with regard to use is not possible; thus, limiting the quality of the evidence.
UpToDate reviews on “Overview of the management of osteoarthritis” (Deveza, 2021), and “Management of knee osteoarthritis” (Deveza and Bennell, 2021a) do not mention taping as a management / therapeutic option.
Furthermore, an UpToDate review on “Management of moderate to severe knee osteoarthritis” (Deveza and Bennell, 2021b) states that “Patellofemoral (PF) taping and bracing, on the other hand, aim at reducing joint stress in patients with symptoms arising from the PF joint and presence of patellar malalignment. There is evidence that patellar taping markedly improves pain in the short term, while PF bracing seems a more appealing option for long-term use such as in patients with PF OA. However, a crossover trial did not find differences in pain reduction when PF OA participants wore a specific type of off-the-shelf brace with or without the realigning strap applied. On the other hand, another study found small improvement in pain in the group that wore the brace for a mean of 7.4 hours daily for 6 weeks compared with a no-brace control group. In addition, the brace group had greater reduction in PF bone marrow lesion volume, suggesting a potential structure-modifying effect”. However, taping is not mentioned in the “Summary and Recommendations” section of this review.
Pulsed Vibration Therapy
The 2019 American College of Rheumatology/Arthritis Foundation’s guideline on “The management of osteoarthritis of the hand, hip, and knee” (Kolasinski et al, 2020) conditionally recommended against the use of pulsed vibration therapy in patients with knee OA. It stated that few trials have addressed pulsed vibration therapy, and in the absence of adequate data, the guideline conditionally recommend against its use.
Radiofrequency Ablation Including Genicular Nerve Radiofrequency Ablation
The 2019 American College of Rheumatology/Arthritis Foundation’s guideline on “The management of osteoarthritis of the hand, hip, and knee” (Kolasinski et al, 2020) conditionally recommended radiofrequency ablation (RFA) for patients with knee OA. It stated that a number of studies have reported potential analgesic benefits with various ablation techniques; however, because of the heterogeneity of techniques and controls used and lack of long-term safety data, this recommendation is conditional.
Huang and colleagues (2020) noted that US-guided RF may be a promising therapy in the treatment of chronic pain for patients with KOA. In a systematic review, these researchers examined the safety and efficacy of US-guided RF treatment for chronic pain in patients with KOA. They examined the studies evaluating the clinical efficiency of US-guided RF on chronic pain in KOA population. A systematic review for the safety and efficacy of US-guided RF treatment for pain management of KOA patients was carried out in PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, Wanfang Data, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) from the date of inception to February 2020, and a meta-analysis was performed. The primary outcomes of pain intensity (VAS or NRS) and knee function (the WOMAC) were evaluated from baseline to various follow-up times by random-effects model. Heterogeneity was assessed by I2 statistic and the potential sources of heterogeneity by subgroup and meta-regression analyses, respectively. A total of 8 publications with 256 patients were included in the meta-analysis. RF could relieve pain with -4.196 of pooled MD and improve knee function by decreasing 23.155 points in WOMAC; 3 patients had ecchymosis, 2 with hypoesthesia and 1 with numbness after the procedure; and improved within 6 months. Furthermore, study design and treatment target were the sources of heterogeneity by subgroup and meta-regression analyses, accounting for 37 % and 74 % of variances, respectively . Target of genicular nerve achieved better pain relief than intra-articular or sciatic nerve. Sensitivity analysis showed that removal of any single study was unlikely to overturn the findings. The authors concluded that US was a safe, effective, non-radiative, and easily applicable guidance method for RF in pain relief and functional improvement in KOA patients. Moreover, these researchers stated that the safety and efficacy of US-guided RF in the treatment of KOA requires further investigation for clinical validation by high-quality multi-centric, RCTs with large sample size.
The authors stated that this study had several drawbacks. First, the small number of relevant studies (n = 8) limited the confidence level of the meta-analysis. Furthermore, the significant heterogeneity may not be explained due to the limited data. Second, the direct comparison of 2 different guidance methods (US versus fluoroscopy) for RF therapy is lacking. In addition, the outcomes were blindly evaluated in the meta-analysis from all studies according to evaluation of bias, which could affect the reality of the data. Finally, most of the studies only provided short follow-up times; thus, these investigators could not analyze the long-term effectiveness of US-guided RF in the treatment of patients with KOA.
Koshi et al (2020) noted that genicular nerve RFA for the treatment of chronic knee pain has traditionally targeted the superomedial, superolateral, and inferomedial genicular nerves; however, recent cadaveric studies of knee neuroanatomy demonstrated varied locations of these specific nerves as well as additional articular nerves. These findings suggested that traditional genicular nerve RFA lesion locations may be inadequate. These investigators described a novel protocol using a 3-tined RFA electrode to target the superomedial (SMGN), superolateral (SLGN), and inferomedial genicular nerves (IMGN), as well as the terminal articular branches of the nerves to the vastus medialis (NVM), intermedius (NVI), and lateralis (NVL). They also examined the ability of this technique to reduce chronic knee pain. Case series of consecutive patients with 6 or more months of refractory knee pain who underwent genicular nerve RFA according to the novel protocol were described; 7 discrete RFA lesions were placed to target the SMGN, NVM, NVI, NVL, SLGN, and IGMN. A total of 11 patients underwent RFA, 9 with knee OA and 2 after arthroplasty. At 1 month, 91 % (95 % CI: 59 % to 100 %), 82 % (95 % CI: 48 % to 98 %), and 9 % (95 % CI: 2 % to 41 %) of patients reported greater than or equal to 50 %, greater than or equal to 80 %, and 100 % improvement in knee pain on the NRS, respectively. These results were sustained at 6 months. There were no complications. The authors concluded that these preliminary data suggested the feasibility and possible effectiveness of genicular nerve RFA using the described novel protocol including a 3-tined electrode. Moreover, these researchers stated that larger-scale studies with comparative groups are needed.
Conger et al (2021) stated that genicular nerve RFA is increasingly being used to for the treatment of chronic pain due to knee OA. In a narrative review, these researchers provided a concise summary of the relevant neuroanatomy, RCTs, appropriate patient selection, and safety relating to genicular RFA. Cadaveric studies demonstrate significant variability in the location of the genicular nerves, which has stimulated debate regarding the ideal target locations for genicular RFA. Despite this, favorable outcomes have been reported in studies targeting only the superior medial genicular nerve, inferior medial genicular nerve, and superior lateral genicular nerve. Several RCTs demonstrated superiority of genicular RFA compared with IA steroid, viscosupplementation, and oral analgesics. The authors concluded that genicular RFA of the superior medial genicular nerve, inferior medial genicular nerve, and superior lateral genicular nerve appeared to be an effective treatment for painful knee OA; however, targeting additional sensory nerves may further improve treatment success. In addition, development of a more accurate prognostic block protocol and clinical selection paradigm will likely to improve the success rate of this procedure. Moreover, these researchers stated that although genicular RFA appeared relatively safe on the basis of the available data, additional large-scale studies are needed to provide greater confidence. These investigators stated that limitations of this trial included industry sponsorship, lack of blinding, and missing data beyond 1 year.
In a systematic review, Fogarty et al (2022) examined the effectiveness of fluoroscopically guided genicular nerve RFA for painful knee OA. Primary outcome measure was improvement in pain after 6 months; and secondary outcomes included the OKS and WOMAC. Two reviewers independently examined publications before October 10, 2020. The Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool and GRADE system were used. A total of 199 publications were screened, and 9 were included. Six-month success rates for 50 % or greater pain relief following RFA ranged from 49 % to 74 %. When compared with IA steroid injection, the probability of success was 4.5 times higher for RFA (RR = 4.58; 95 % CI: 2.61 to 8.04). When RFA was compared with HA injection, the probability of treatment success was 1.8 times higher (RR = 1.88, 95 % CI: 1.38 to 2.57). The group mean OKS and WOMAC scores improved in subjects receiving genicular RFA compared with IA steroid injection and HA injection. According to GRADE, there was moderate-quality evidence that fluoroscopically guided genicular RFA was effective for reducing pain associated with knee OA at minimum of 6 months. Moreover, these researchers stated that further research is likely to have an important impact on the current understanding of the long-term effectiveness of this treatment.
In a prospective, observational study, Chang et al (2022) examined the effectiveness of US-guided genicular nerve RFA in alleviating pain as well as its effects on functional outcomes, QOL and physical performance in patients with knee OA. Patients were recruited within 1 community hospital. Participants underwent US-guided RFA of genicular nerves after showing a positive response to a diagnostic block. Outcome assessments were performed at baseline and at 2- and 12-week post-treatments using the SF-36, WOMAC, and a physical performance evaluation including balance tests, quadriceps muscle strength test, two-minute walking test (2MWT) and knee joint proprioception test; and 13 out of 38 patients were eligible for genicular nerve RFA. There were significant improvements from baseline to post-treatment in the NRS score, physical health domain score of SF-36, and pain and stiffness domain scores of the WOMAC. Regarding physical performance, the step test result significantly improved over the 12 weeks of follow-up. On the other hand, no significant deteriorations in the single leg stance test, isokinetic quadriceps muscle strength test, knee joint proprioception test or 2MWT results were observed following RFA of genicular nerves. The authors concluded that RFA of genicular nerves may significantly alleviate pain and improve functional outcomes in patients with knee OA. More importantly, static balance control and quadriceps muscle strength were preserved and there was a change of proprioception in the good direction. The main drawbacks of this study were that it was a small (n = 13 in the genicular nerve RFA group) observational study, with short-term follow-up (12 weeks). These preliminary findings need to be validated by well-designed studies.
Stromal Vascular Fraction Injection
Shanmugasundaram and colleagues (2021) noted that stromal vascular fraction (SVF) as an injectable regenerative therapy for knee OA has recently gained popularity; however, there is no clear consensus on the outcomes of such treatment. These researchers systematically reviewed available evidence on the use of SVF injection in the treatment of knee OA. The study was carried out according to the PRISMA guidelines, with keyword search in PubMed, Scopus, and the Cochrane Library Database and related article search in Google Scholar. Clinical studies demonstrating effects of SVF in knee OA and published in English literature were included. Risk of bias assessment was performed with modified Coleman Methodology Scoring (CMS). A total of 11 studies (9 prospective, 2 retrospective) that contributed to 290 knees in 200 patients were included; 2 studies that contributed to 3,718 knee injections were excluded from pooled analysis and were scrutinized separately. Majority of patients reported improvement in pain, ROM, functional rating, 6-meter walking distance (6MWD), and functional outcome scores. There was no major donor-site morbidity. There was only 1 reported case of knee joint infection and no case of tumor formation in relation to SVF injection. The authors concluded that intra-articular injection of SVF was a safe and effective technique for the management of knee OA; however, comparative Level I studies are needed to support the use of adjuvants with SVF and also to compare the use of SVF (with or without adjuvants) with adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADMSCs), PRP, and bone marrow concentrate.
Transcutaneous Electrical Stimulation (TENS)
The 2019 American College of Rheumatology/Arthritis Foundation’s guideline on “The management of osteoarthritis of the hand, hip, and knee” (Kolasinski et al, 2020) strongly recommended against the use of transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TENS) in patients with knee and/or hip OA. It stated that studies examining the use of TENS have been of low quality with small size and variable controls, making comparisons across trials difficult. Studies have demonstrated a lack of benefit for knee OA.
Adipose Cell-Based Therapies (e.g., Autologous Lipoaspirate)
Biazzo et al (2020) examined safety and effectiveness of ADSC or SVF injections for the treatment of knee OA by analyzing all RCTs dealing with this topic. The following search terms were used in PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and the Cochrane Library Database on November 14, 2019: “adipose derived stem cell” OR “stromal vascular fraction” OR “SVF” OR “multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells” OR “stem cell” OR “derived stem cell” OR “autologous” AND “knee” OR “Osteoarthritis” OR “chondral defect” OR “randomized” OR “controlled trial”. No time limit was given to publication date. These researchers included RCTs based on the following criteria: English studies; patient population diagnosed with knee OA and treated with ADSCs or SVF injections; comparison group treated with placebo, surgery, or adjuvant injections, such as PRP or HA. Intra-articular injections of adipose stem cell therapy in the form of ADSC or SVF was a safe procedure for the treatment of knee OA, with good clinical and radiological outcomes in the early follow-up period (12 to 24 months). Furthermore, treatment with fat-derived cells showed a very low complication rate (16.15 %) of which all were considered to be minor. The authors concluded that ADSCs and SVF appeared to produce promising good-to-excellent clinical results for the treatment of knee OA. However, the length and modalities of follow-up in the different conditions were extremely variable. Nevertheless, it appeared that the use of ADSC was associated with clinical and radiological improvements and minimal complication rates. To avoid bias deriving from the use of biological adjuvants or surgical procedures, RCTs comparing ADSCs or SVF and other treatments (e.g.,, PRP or hyaluronic acid injections) should be carried out.
Lavagnolo et al (2021) noted that autologous lipoaspirate processing allows a tissue product to be transplanted for regenerative purposes in multiple pathological sites, such as the knee joint affected by osteoarthritic disease. Recently, multiple protocols and devices have been designed for lipoaspirate processing. These protocols and devices do not use enzymatic digestion and respect the principles of the so-called "minimal manipulation in a closed system". In a systematic review, these investigators examined studies in which OA was treated by minimally manipulated intra-articular SVF injection and assessment of therapeutic response was reported. They identified 12 clinical trials in which clinical evaluations were carried out inconsistently using different scales of analysis. All studies reported a significant decrease in the patient's symptomatic discomfort, with improvement in joint function and reduction in pain. Most studies did not reach a high-quality level on the linear scale based on the Coleman-Kon scores. Although the treatment of knee OA with regenerative methods is undoubtedly of interest, being aimed at healing the disease, this study highlighted that the trials were numerically limited, and qualitatively not optimal according to the Coleman-Kon score. The authors concluded that greater standardization of devices protocols will be desirable in the future. The high clinical potential offered by these methods could be optimized for all patients.
Iovera Cryoneurolysis
Dasa et al (2016) stated that total knee arthroplasty (TKA) is a common procedure resulting in significant post-operative pain. Percutaneous cryoneurolysis targeting the infrapatellar branch of the saphenous nerve and anterior femoral cutaneous nerve could relieve post-operative knee pain by temporarily blocking sensory nerve conduction. These investigators carried out a retrospective chart review of 100 patients who underwent TKA to examine the value of adding peri-operative cryoneurolysis to a multi-modal pain management program. The treatment group consisted of the first 50 patients consecutively treated after the practice introduced perioperative (5 days before surgery) cryoneurolysis as part of its standard pain management protocol. The control group consisted of the 50 patients treated before cryoneurolysis was introduced. Outcomes included hospital length of stay (LOS), post-operative opioid requirements, and patient-reported outcomes of pain and function. A significantly lower proportion of patients in the treatment group had a LOS of 2 days or more compared with the control group (6 % versus 67 %, p < 0.0001) and required 45 % less opioids during the first 12 weeks after surgery. The treatment group reported a statistically significant reduction in symptoms at the 6- and 12-week follow-up compared with the control group and within-group significant reductions in pain intensity and pain interference at 2- and 6-week follow-up, respectively. The authors concluded that peri-operative cryoneurolysis in combination with multi-modal pain management may significantly improve outcomes in patients undergoing TKA. Promising results from this preliminary retrospective study warrant further investigation of this novel treatment in adequately powered prospective, randomized studies. Level of Evidence = III.
The authors stated that this study had several drawbacks, including its retrospective, non-randomized nature, and lack of blinding of patients and investigators, which may have biased results and limited the generalizability of findings. Selection bias may have influenced results as the control group was comprised of the first 50 patients with complete WOMAC responses treated before the initiation of pre-operative cryoneurolysis. These patients may have been different from less compliant patients who did not complete the questionnaire and were excluded from the control group. Furthermore, differences between the control and treatment groups may be attributable to history or other confounding factors, rather than the study intervention. Because the treatment group underwent TKA more recently than the control group, and there has been a trend towards reducing post-operative LOS in the U.S., it was possible that the shorter LOS observed in the treatment group may be an artifact of history. However, the U.S. hospital mean LOS decreased by just 0.2 days from 2003 to 2012. Therefore, it appeared unlikely that historical trends could explain the dramatically lower LOS observed in the treatment group compared with the control group (mean of 0.8 days versus 1.7 days). Patients' and surgeons' awareness of which patients received cryoneurolysis may have contributed to some of the improved outcomes in the treatment group, including self-reported measures and LOS. Although the surgeon made the ultimate determination for discharge, this decision was based on the patient's ability to meet certain objectively-measured physical therapy (PT) metrics, which reduced the likelihood that discharge decisions were biased. Furthermore, while patients' and surgeons' expectations may have favorably influenced outcomes in the treatment group, it was unlikely that these expectations were solely responsible for the dramatic reduction in LOS and post-operative opioid requirements observed in this group. There were missing data on patient-reported outcomes measurement information system (PROMIS) for both study groups, due to inconsistent completion of questionnaires, although missing PROM data was more commonly observed in the control group as the office improved its efforts to encourage patient completion of surveys over time. The lack of significant differences between the treatment and control groups on PROM's may be due in part to unequal and small sample sizes for these measures.
In a randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled, multi-center trial, Radnovich et al (2017) examined the safety/tolerability and effectiveness of cryoneurolysis for reduction of pain and symptoms associated with knee osteoarthritis (OA). This study entailed a 6-month follow-up in patients with mild-to-moderate knee OA. Patients were randomized 2:1 to cryoneurolysis targeting the infrapatellar branch of the saphenous nerve (IPBSN) or sham treatment. The primary endpoint was the change from baseline to Day 30 in the Western Ontario and McMaster Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC) pain score adjusted by the baseline score and site. Secondary endpoints, including visual analog scale (VAS) pain score and total WOMAC score, were tested in a pre-defined order. The intent-to-treat (ITT) population consisted of 180 patients (n = 121 active treatment, n = 59 sham treatment). Compared to the sham group, patients who received active treatment had a statistically significant greater change from baseline in the WOMAC pain subscale score at Day 30 (p = 0.0004), Day 60 (p = 0.0176), and Day 90 (p = 0.0061). Patients deemed WOMAC pain responders at Day 120 continued to experience a statistically significant treatment effect at Day 150. Most expected side effects were mild in severity and resolved within 30 days. The incidence of device- or procedure-related adverse events (AEs) was similar in the 2 treatment groups with no occurrence of serious or unanticipated adverse device effects (ADE). The authors concluded that cryoneurolysis of the IPBSN resulted in statistically significant decreased knee pain and improved symptoms compared to sham treatment for up to 150 days; and appeared safe and well-tolerated.
The authors stated that this study had several drawbacks. Although allocation to treatment group was initially well concealed, patients began to more accurately guess their treatment group assignment based on their response to treatment over time, which may have affected patient-reported outcomes and biased results in favor of active treatment. There was a lack of consensus regarding how OA treatment responders should be defined. The Initiative on Methods, Measurement, and Pain Assessment in Clinical Trials (IMMPACT) suggested that, in evaluating interventions for chronic pain, a 10 % to 20 % decrease in pain intensity was minimally important, ≥ 30 % moderately important, and ≥ 50 % substantial. Per these recommendations, the criterion used to define WOMAC pain and VAS responders in the present study (≥ 30 % decrease in pain intensity) was consistent with a moderate level of pain relief; utilization of a higher threshold (≥ 50 % reduction) for defining responders would have resulted in smaller proportions in both study groups. The reduction in knee pain and symptoms experienced by actively treated patients did not translate to improved generic health-related QOL, possibly because improvement in function in patients with OA was better detected by the WOMAC than the SF-3641 and the WOMAC better discriminated among individuals with knee problems whereas the SF-36 better discriminated among individuals with varying levels of self-reported general health status and comorbidities. The reduction of approximately 30 % in pain observed in the sham group was consistent with the size of the sham effect in studies utilizing sham acupuncture; and may be attributable to patient expectations or the placebo effects of participating in a research study with frequent clinical contact. Lastly, although the study was caried out at multiple sites with different investigators applying treatment, lending greater weight to the robustness and generalizability of results, the trial should be replicated to ensure reproducibility of findings.
In a commentary on the afore-mentioned study by Radnovich et al (2017), Walsh (2017) explained: “The data presented by Radnovich et al show clinically important benefits of treatment with cryoneurolysis compared with a sham procedure at 30 days. However, beyond 30 days the mean effects were no longer at the threshold for clinical importance and lost statistical significance after 90 days. The authors suggest that patients could undergo repeated cryoneurolysis as needed, although this repetition would inevitably increase treatment costs. Moreover, cryoneurolysis is used to generate neuropathic pain in animal models and the current study was not powered to exclude clinically important adverse events of single or repeated nerve injury. The results presented by Radnovich et al are very encouraging, but do require independent replication”.
Plessl et al (2020) stated that with the increasing demand for TKA, rapid recovery protocols (RRPs) have been introduced to reduce costs and the LOS. Little is known regarding the effects of RRPs on post-operative knee range of motion (ROM). These investigators reviewed the medical charts of 323 patients who underwent primary TKA performed by a single orthopedic surgeon at a university-based orthopedic tertiary care safety net practice. Of the 323 patients, 129 were treated with a standard recovery protocol (SRP) between January 1, 2012, and December 10, 2013, and 194 with a RRP beginning December 11, 2013. Knee ROM was assessed at the pre-operative visit and at scheduled post-operative visits for up to 1 year. Differences in mean LOS between the groups were compared using a Poisson regression with and without adjustment for co-variates. Repeated measures analysis of co-variance was used to examine the effects of recovery protocol, time, and the interaction of recovery protocol by time on flexion and flexion contracture. The probability of achieving flexion ≥ 120° and having a flexion contracture ≥ 10° was estimated using the SAS/STAT GLIMMIX procedure with a binary distribution and a logit link. The mean LOS for the RRP and SRP groups was 0.8 and 2.5 days, respectively. RRP was associated with greater flexion at 2, 6, and 12 weeks and a higher probability of attaining flexion ≥ 120° at 6 and 12 weeks. Patients receiving a RRP had less severe flexion contracture and a lower probability of flexion contracture ≥ 10° at 2, 6, and 12 weeks. The authors concluded that during the first 12 weeks after TKA, patients who received a RRP had a markedly greater ROM than patients who received a SRP, suggesting that RRP may allow patients to do a greater variety of activities of daily living (ADL) during the first 3 post-operative months while reducing health care costs. It should be noted that cryoneurolysis was NOT mentioned as part of the RRPs. Level of Evidence = III.
In a retrospective, single-center study, Urban et al (2021) examined if cryoneurolysis of superficial genicular nerves combined with standard care decreased post-operative opioids and pain following TKA. Data from patients who underwent TKA at a single center were analyzed. Patients who received standardized cryoneurolysis before TKA were compared with a historical control group including patients who underwent TKA without cryoneurolysis. Both groups received a similar peri-operative multi-modal pain management protocol. The primary outcome was opioid intake at various time-points from hospital stay to 6 weeks after discharge. Additional outcomes included pain, LOS, and ROM. The analysis included 267 patients (cryoneurolysis group: n = 169; control group: n = 98). During the hospital stay, the cryoneurolysis group had 51 % lower daily morphine milligram equivalents (MMEs) (47 versus 97 MMEs; ratio estimate, 0.49 [95 % confidence interval (CI): 0.43 to 0.56]; p < 0.0001) and 22 % lower mean pain score (ratio estimate, 0.78 [95 % CI: 0.70 to 0.88]; p < 0.0001) versus the control group. The cryoneurolysis group received significantly fewer cumulative MMEs, including discharge prescriptions, than the control group at week 2 (855 versus 1,312 MMEs; ratio estimate, 0.65 [95 % CI: 0.59 to 0.73]; p < 0.0001) and week 6 (894 versus 1,406 MMEs; ratio estimate, 0.64 [95 % CI: 0.57 to 0.71]; p < 0.0001). The cryoneurolysis group had significant 44 % reduction in overall LOS (p < 0.0001) and greater flexion degree at discharge (p < 0.0001). The authors concluded that the findings of this retrospective study suggested that, when added to a multi-modal TKA pain protocol, pre-operative cryoneurolysis provided superior pain control and allowed patients to take fewer opioids during hospitalization and during the 6-week recovery period than a multi-modal TKA pain protocol alone. Optimization of pain control in the peri-operative period was associated with reduced hospital LOS, a decreased rate of re-admission, fewer post-operative complications, and improved patient satisfaction with surgery. Achieving good pain control during the initial post-operative period was also critical to avoiding the development of chronic pain and long-term opioid use. Novel pain management modalities that can allow patients to recover from painful surgery with fewer opioids are critical to achieve the nationwide goal of reducing opioid prescribing without compromising quality of care. Moreover, these researchers stated that further study is needed to determine if cryoneurolysis would result in potential cost-savings for patients.
The authors stated that this study had several drawbacks:
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First, this study was retrospective; thus, patients were not randomized between treatments. These factors precluded the ability to determine causality, given that it was possible that variables other than the addition of cryoneurolysis to a multi-modal pain protocol may have contributed to the observed reductions in pain and opioid consumption. When the practice in this study began to use cryoneurolysis in 2018, there was limited information on its use in TKA, which necessitated ongoing protocol refinement and optimization, including optimization of the US-guided technique for identifying the femoral cutaneous nerves and changes in the type of needle tip used to administer cryoneurolysis. Because of this changing of the cryoneurolysis protocol over time, TKA procedures conducted in 2018 were excluded from the current analysis to enable more reliable comparisons between patients treated with versus without a standardized cryoneurolysis procedure. This approach resulted in a time gap between the cryoneurolysis group (2019 to 2020) and the comparator control group (2017). However, no relevant changes were made to the multi-modal protocol over this time period. Of note, the adjusted mean total opioid prescription at discharge was significantly lower in the more contemporary cryoneurolysis group (2019 to 2020) than that in the control group (2017); as such, changes in opioid-prescribing patterns over time (e.g., greater awareness of risks of opioids, greater understanding that lower doses of opioids could provide effective analgesia) could have impacted the opioid prescription outcomes. However, it was the opinion of the authors that this was unlikely because the practice did not formally alter their opioid-prescribing policy over this time period, and the lower pain scores and opioid consumption observed during the hospital stay in the cryoneurolysis versus the control group were consistent with reduced opioid requirements at discharge in the cryoneurolysis group compared with the control group. Finally, even if opioid reductions between the cryoneurolysis and control groups were influenced by greater awareness of the need to reduce opioid prescriptions, the short-term pain outcomes and long-term functional outcomes with cryoneurolysis were optimized, which supported the effectiveness of cryoneurolysis in managing pain and optimizing recovery.
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Second, it was possible that a trend toward reduced LOS following TKA may partially explain the significant reduction in LOS for the patients who received cryoneurolysis compared with the control group, given that the patients who received cryoneurolysis were treated more than 1 year later.
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Third, limited pre-operative data were available for the study sample, and pre-operative opioid use, which is a strong predictor of the amount and duration of post-operative opioid use after TKA, may not have been fully captured; this may have affected the ability to reliably assess for between-group differences in this potentially confounding variable. Of note, a greater proportion of patients in the cryoneurolysis group in 2019 to 2020 (96 %) had no prior opioid exposure compared with the control group from 2017 (81 %). It was the opinion of the authors that this trend could be in part related to a decreased likelihood of primary care providers to prescribe opioids for OA pain control over time because of increased awareness of the opioid epidemic. Because it was not possible to determine if pre-operative exposure may have played a role in the significant difference between groups in opioid prescriptions at the 2-week follow-up, further study is needed to determine the influence of pre-operative opioid exposure on post-operative opioid use in patients receiving cryoneurolysis.
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Fourth, the use of a single site and surgeon allowed for excellent control over implementation of the multi-modal pain protocol and surgical technique; however, this also limited the generalizability of findings.
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Fifth, pain data were not available to compare groups after discharge. Nonetheless, given that patients in the cryoneurolysis group showed improved functional outcomes and were prescribed significantly fewer cumulative opioids than patients in the control group, it was reasonable to assume that pain intensity in the cryoneurolysis group was not higher than that in the control group.
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Sixth, because this was a retrospective study with historical controls, other confounding factors could have influenced study outcomes. However, potentially confounding variables (i.e., BMI, prior opioid exposure, age, and ASA physical status classification) were included in the multi-variable regression model to optimize comparison of the 2 groups.
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Last, cost-effectiveness was not assessed in this study, which would benefit from further assessment in a separate study. Finally, data pertaining to health-care costs were not included in this study.
Mihalko et al (2021) hypothesized that pre-operative cryoneurolysis of the superficial genicular nerves in patients with OA would decrease post-operative opioid use relative to standard of care (SOC) treatment in patients undergoing TKA. Patients received either cryoneurolysis (ITT: n = 62) or SOC (ITT: n = 62). The cryoneurolysis group received cryoneurolysis of the superficial genicular nerves 3 to 7 days before surgery plus a similar pre-operative, intra-operative, and post-operative pain management protocol as the SOC group. The primary endpoint was cumulative opioid consumption in total daily morphine equivalents from discharge to the 6-week study follow-up assessment. Secondary endpoints included changes in pain and functional scores. Primary and secondary endpoints were assessed using ITT and per-protocol (PP) analyses. The primary endpoint was not met in the ITT analysis (4.8 [cryoneurolysis] versus 6.1 [SOC] mg; p = 0.0841) but was met in the PP analysis (4.2 versus 5.9 mg; p = 0.0186) after excluding patients with medication deviations or missing follow-up data. Compared with the SOC group, the cryoneurolysis group had improved functional scores and numerical improvements in pain scores across all follow-up assessments, with significant improvements observed in current pain from baseline to the 72-hour and 2-week follow-up assessments and pain in the past week from baseline to the 12-week follow-up assessment. The authors concluded that findings from the PP analysis suggested that pre-operative cryoneurolysis may be considered as a part of multi-modal pain management to minimize opioid use while reducing pain and improving knee function after surgery. These researchers stated that future studies can examine the analgesic efficacy, safety, and opioid-sparing benefits of cryoneurolysis in patients with prior long-term opioid use undergoing TKA.
Nygaard et al (2021) noted that pain is the principal symptom in knee OA. Current non-operative therapeutic options have only moderate effects and often patients experience persistent pain or side-effects. Novel advances in the field of cryoneurolysis applies low temperatures to disrupt nerve signaling at the painful area, providing pain relief. In a 2-arm, double-blinded, parallel-group, randomized controlled trial (RCT), these investigators examined if cryoneurolysis is superior to sham at decreasing pain intensity 2 weeks after the intervention in patients with knee OA. Secondary aims were to examine effects on pain, quality of life (QOL) and functional performance over 24 months. This study approved by the Regional Ethics Committee, will randomly allocate patients (n = 94) to a cryoneurolysis intervention group + standardized education and exercise (CRYO) or a sham group + standardized education and exercise (SHAM) (1:1 ratio). Both groups will be assessed at baseline, 2 weeks post intervention, post education and exercise and at 6, 12 and 24 months after cryoneurolysis. The primary outcome is the Numeric Rating Scale (NRS) knee pain intensity score assessed 2 weeks after the intervention. Secondary outcome measures included functional performance (chair-stand test, 40 m walk, stair test and maximum voluntary contraction of the knee), patient reported outcomes (QOL (EQ5D), Knee and osteoarthritis outcome scores (KOOS), among others), use of analgesics, and AEs over 24 months. The authors concluded that cryoneurolysis could potentially provide a safe, effective, and non-pharmacological therapeutic option to treat pain in OA patients. The potential benefits include increased functional capacity and QOL as a result of significant pain relief and improved benefits of physical exercise. The authors stated that the obtained results will be made publicly available within 1 year after the end of the project.
Biel et al (2023) stated that cryoneurolysis is a term used to describe the application of extreme cold to targeted nerve tissue. The primary objective of the application of a thermal neurolytic technique is to disrupt the conduction of pain signals from the periphery to the central nervous system (CNS) and eliminate or diminish the experience of pain. Recent advancements in ultrasound (US) technology coupled with the development and approval of hand-held devices specifically designed to deliver cryoneurolysis has expanded the use of this modality in the peri-operative setting. Surgical procedures including total knee arthroplasties, shoulder arthroplasties, thoracotomies, and mastectomies have all demonstrated long-term pain relief benefits when cryoneurolysis has been administered days to weeks before the planned procedure. Furthermore, the newly designed hand-held device allows for office-based clinical use and has been employed for various chronic pain conditions including neuropathic and phantom limb pain. The authors concluded that the evidence clearly showed that cryoneurolysis has a low-risk profile and when administered appropriately, provided prolonged analgesia without promoting motor blockade. These researchers described the unique mechanism of action of cryoneurolysis for prolonged pain relief and provided emerging evidence to support its applications in both acute and chronic pain management. Moreover, these researchers stated that cryoneurolysis has demonstrated great potential; however, further research is needed to better quantify the benefits of cryoneurolysis for an array of acute and chronic painful conditions.
Manual Therapy
Feng et al (2023) stated that manual therapy has been used as an alternative approach to treat KOA for many years. Numerous systematic reviews (SRs) or meta-analyses (MAs) were published to examine its safety and effectiveness; however, the conclusions of SRs/MAs were inconsistent, and the uneven quality needs to be critically appraised. These investigators carried out a comprehensive overview of the safety and effectiveness of manual therapy for KOA and the quality of relevant SRs/MAs, providing critical evidence and valuable direction for future researchers to promote the generation of advanced evidence. The pre-defined search strategies were applied to 8 electronic databases from inception to September 2022. Suitable SRs/MAs were included in accordance with the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The methodological quality, risk of bias, reporting quality, and evidence quality were assessed by 2 independent reviewers who used respectively the A Measurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews 2 (AMSTAR-2), the Risk of Bias in Systematic Reviews (ROBIS), the PRISMA 2020 Version, and GRADE based on the method of narrative synthesis. These investigators excluded the overlapping RCTs and carried out a re-meta-analysis of the total effective rate. A total of 11 relevant SRs/MAs were included: 9 SRs/MAs were rated critically low quality, and 2 were rated low quality by AMSTAR-2. According to ROBIS, all SRs/MAs were rated low risk in Phase 1 (assessing relevance) and Domain 1 (study eligibility criteria) of Phase 2. A total of 3 SRs/MAs (27.27 %) were rated low risk in Domain 2 (identification and selection of studies); 10 SRs/MAs (90.91 %) were rated low risk in Domain 3 (data collection and study appraisal). A total of 5 SRs/MAs (45.45 %) were rated low risk in Domain 4 (synthesis and findings); 5 SRs/MAs (45.45 %) were rated low risk in Phase 3 (risk of bias in the review). Using PRISMA 2020, there were some reporting deficiencies in the aspects of abstract (2/11, 18.18 %), search strategy (0/11, 0 %), pre-processing of merging data (0/11, 0 %), heterogeneity exploration (6/11, 54.55 %), sensitivity analysis (4/11, 36.36 %), publication bias (5/11, 45.45 %), evidence quality (3/11, 27.27 %), the list of excluded references (3/11, 27.27 %), protocol and registration (1/11, 9.09 %), funding (1/11, 9.09 %), conflict of interest (3/11, 27.27 %), and approach to relevant information (0/11, 0 %). Using GRADE, the evidence quality was defined as moderate quality (8 items, 21.05 %), low quality (16 items, 42.11 %), and critically low quality (14 items, 36.84 %). Among the down-graded factors, risk of bias, inconsistency, imprecision, and publication bias were the main factors. A re-meta-analysis revealed that manual therapy could increase the total effective rate in KOA patients (RR = 1.15, 95 % CI: 1.12 to 1.18, p < 0.00001; I2 = 0, p = 0.84). There were 4 reviews that narratively reported adverse effects, and no severe adverse reactions occurred in the manual therapy group. The authors concluded that manual therapy may be safe and effective for patients with KOA. Moreover, these researchers stated that this conclusion must be interpreted with caution because of the generally unsatisfactory study quality and inconsistent conclusions of the included SRs/MAs. These investigators stated that further rigorous and normative SRs/MAs are needed to provide robust evidence for definitive conclusions.
The authors stated that this study had several drawbacks. First, these investigators did not examine the influence of detailed control interventions and manual therapy durations because of deficient reporting in many SRs/MAs. This overview could not fully present situations in long-term effect of manual therapy. Second, most of the included studies were carried out in China; thus, more studies should be carried out to examine if the relevant conclusions can be generalized to other populations.
Medial Knee Implanted Shock Absorber (MISHA)
Diduch et al (2023) stated that up to 10 million Americans below the age of 65 years have symptomatic knee OA; and may not yet be candidates for arthroplasty. In response, an implantable shock absorber (ISA) that unloads the knee has been developed. In a prospective, open-label, non-randomized study with a historical control arm, these investigators compared the safety and effectiveness of ISA treatment against a surgical unloading control, HTO. Subjects underwent ISA placement or HTO. The primary endpoint was a composite variable combining pain, function, specific AEs, integrity of implant or hardware, and conversion to subsequent surgery. Pain and function outcomes (WOMAC scores) were examined through 24 months; and AEs were tracked. The primary endpoint showed superiority of the ISA arm versus the HTO arm, with 85.6 % of ISA subjects meeting all criteria compared with 65.5 % of HTO subjects. Furthermore, all 5 secondary endpoints showed superiority of ISA over HTO. At 24 months, the proportions of subjects considered responders were 95.8 % (ISA) versus 87.9 % (HTO) for pain and 91.7 % (ISA) versus 81.3 % (HTO) for function. The ISA procedure was well-tolerated, with 13.4 days to full weight-bearing status versus 58.0 days for the HTO arm. The authors concluded that treatment with an ISA revealed non-inferiority and superiority versus treatment with HTO in subjects aged 25 to 65 years who had OA of the medial knee. Treatment with ISA has high clinical benefit and was durable through at least 24 months. The authors noted that drawbacks of this study included its non-randomized design, although the historical control HTO arm was propensity-matched to the ISA-treated arm. Moreover, these researchers stated that the study provided evidence for the ISA performance versus HTO; however, important research remains to determine the generalizability of these findings.
Gomoll et al (2023) examined the 5-year rate of survival without undergoing arthroplasty or HTO in subjects with mild-to-moderate medial compartment knee OA who were treated with an ISA system. These investigators carried out 3 prospective, sequential, single-arm, multi-center clinical trials comprising subjects who received an ISA for symptomatic medial knee OA after failing 6 months or more of conservative therapy. Study outcomes were analyzed cumulatively and by enrollment group when all subjects' follow-up data exceeded the 2-year threshold after ISA implantation. Primary outcome was survival rate without conversion to arthroplasty/HTO. Secondary outcomes were changes in WOMAC pain and function scores after ISA implantation. All 171 enrolled subjects (age of 51 ± 9 years, BMI of 28.5 ± 3.5 kg/m2, 38 % women; study knee Kellgren-Lawrence score of 2.7 ± 0.9 points) were followed for a minimum of 2, and up to 5, years after device implantation. Overall, 90.6 % (155/171) of subjects survived without requiring arthroplasty/HTO at last follow-up (mean 3.2 ± 1.6 years). The Kaplan-Meyer median 3- and 5-year survival-without-arthroplasty point estimates were 89.8 % (95 % CI: 86.5 % to 95.7 %) and 84.9 % (95 % CI: 75.1 % to 91.1 %), respectively. The median 3-year estimated survival rate for the most recent study (n = 81) was 97.3 %. The mean WOMAC Pain score decreased 71 % from baseline to last follow-up after ISA implantation, from 58 ± 13 to 16 ± 17 points (p < 0.0001). The function score improved 69 %, decreasing from 56 ± 18 to 17 ± 17 points (p < 0.0001). The authors concluded that in younger patients with mild-to-moderate symptomatic medial compartment knee OA, implantation of the ISA device resulted in a 5-year survival rate of 85 % from undergoing arthroplasty or HTO. These researchers stated that the ISA system may be an effective therapeutic option for working-age patients with medial knee OA who are not candidates for or do not desire more invasive surgical approaches. Level of Evidence = II.
Pareek et al (2023) stated that subchondral insufficiency fracture of the knee (SIFK) is associated with high rates of OA and arthroplasty. The ISA is an extra-capsular implant that unloads the medial knee compartment. In a retrospective, case-control study, these researchers compared the 2-year freedom from arthroplasty rates in subjects with medial knee OA and SIFK when treated with an ISA versus a matched cohort of patients treated non-surgically. This trial compared 2-year conversion rates to arthroplasty in SIFK score-, age-, and BMI-matched control subjects without prior surgical history with ISA-implanted subjects from an ongoing, prospective study. Baseline and final radiographs, and magnetic resonance imagings (MRIs) were reviewed for evaluation of meniscus or ligament injuries, insufficiency fractures, and subchondral edema. Kaplan-Meier analysis assessed survival. A total of 42 patients (21 Control: 21 ISA), mean age of 52.3 ± 8.7 years, BMI of 29.5 ± 3.9 kg/m2, 40 % women were evaluated. Both ISA and Control arms had the same numbers of low (n = 4), medium (n = 11), and high-risk (n = 6) SIFK scores; 1- and 2-year freedom-from-arthroplasty rates were both 100 % for ISA subjects, and 76 % and 55 %, respectively, for Controls (p = 0.001 for cross-group comparison). Control knees with low, medium, and high-risk SIFK scores had respective 1- and 2-year survival rates of 100 % and 100 %, 90 % and 68 % (p = 0.07 versus ISA), and 33 % and 0 % (p = 0.002 versus ISA). The authors concluded that this study showed the excellent effectiveness of the ISA in reducing progression-to-arthroplasty for at least 2 years after implantation, even in patients with very high-risk for progression. This study also highlighted the use of the SIFK scoring algorithm for predicting 2-year risk of conversion to arthroplasty. The ISA offers a useful load-reduction approach that may effectively delay or supersede the need for arthroplasty in certain patients.
The authors stated that the key drawbacks of this trial were its relatively small sample size (n = 21 in the ISA group), and exclusion of persons over 65 years of age, which was due to the inclusion criteria of the primary ISA study from which subjects in this study were recruited. These researchers’ a priori power analysis was intended to identify survival difference between Control and ISA groups, so statistical power was lower when comparing survival across different SIFK severity subgroups. The ISA and Control groups were followed for different mean time-points due to study design; namely, the matched pairs from the Control arm were selected from a historical database of previously identified patients. This limitation was mitigated, however, because all conversions in the Control arm occurred before 2 years, the minimum follow-up required for the ISA subjects. Furthermore, Kaplan-Meier analysis accounted for this differential follow-up, although this approach did not address this discrepancy completely. These investigators stated that although they only reported 2-year ISA results, these early results are encouraging. Furthermore, these investigators noted that longer-term outcomes will be collected from the ongoing ISA trials, with analyses and reporting extended out to at least 5 years. The authors believe an implant like the ISA may be most useful for young patients with medial-compartment OA who wish to pursue active lifestyles and prefer joint replacement alternatives.
Pareek et al (2024) noted that SIFK can lead to high rates of OA and arthroplasty. The ISA implant is a titanium and polycarbonate urethane device that decreases the load on the medial compartment of the knee by acting as an extra-articular load absorber while preserving the joint itself. In a retrospective, case-control (2:1) study, these researchers examined if partially unloading the knee with the ISA would change the likelihood of progression to arthroplasty by means of a validated predictive risk model (SIFK score). This trial was carried out on patients with SIFK without any previous surgery, and on those implanted with the ISA with the primary outcome being progression to arthroplasty compared with non-operative treatment at 2 years. Baseline and final radiographs, as well as MRIs, were reviewed for the evaluation of meniscus or ligament injuries, insufficiency fractures, and subchondral edema. Patients from a prospective study were matched using the exact SIFK Score, a validated predictive score for progression to arthroplasty in patients with SIFK, to those who received the ISA implant. Kaplan-Meier analysis was carried out to evaluate survival. A total of 57 patients (38 controls:19 ISA) with a mean age of 60.6 years and 54 % women were included. The SIFK score was matched exactly between cases and controls for all patients. The 2-year survival rate of 100 % for the ISA group was significantly higher than the corresponding rate of 61 % for the control group (p < 0.01). In ISA, 0 % of the patients converted to arthroplasty at 2 years, and 5 % (1 patient) had hardware removal at 1 year. When stratified by risk, the ISA group did not have a significantly higher survival compared with low-risk (p = 0.3) or medium-risk (p = 0.2) controls, although it had a significantly higher survival for high-risk groups at 2 years (100 % versus 15%, p < 0.01). The authors concluded that SIFK of the medial knee can result in significant functional limitation and high rates of conversion to arthroplasty; and implants such as the ISA have the potential to change the progression to arthroplasty in these patients, especially those at high risk.
Sustained Acoustic Medicine (SAM) for the Treatment of Knee Pain
Draper et al (2018) noted that wearable long-duration low-intensity US is an emerging non-invasive and non-narcotic therapy for the daily treatment of musculoskeletal pain. In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, these researchers examined if long-duration low-intensity US was effective in treating pain and improving function in patients with knee OA. A total of 90 patients with moderate-to-severe knee pain and radiographically confirmed knee OA (Kellgren-Lawrence grade I/II) were randomized for treatment with active (n = 55) or placebo (n = 35) devices applied daily to the treated knee. Investigators and subjects were blinded to treatment groups. US (3-MHz, 0.132 W/cm2, 1.3 W) was applied with a wearable device for 4 hours daily for 6 weeks, delivering 18,720 J per treatment. The primary outcome was change in pain intensity (NRS) assessed before intervention (baseline) and after 6 weeks. Secondary outcomes of functional change were measured at baseline and after 6 weeks using the WOMAC (n = 84), along with ROM (flexion, extension) and isometric muscle strength (flexion, extension and rotation) tests on the injured knee in a small pilot subset (n = 17). The study had a 93 % retention rate, and there were no significant differences between the groups regarding demographic variables or baseline outcome measures. Patients treated with active therapy observed a significant mean NRS pain reduction over the 6-week study of 1.96 points for active (p < 0.0001), compared with a 0.85 points reduction for placebo (p = 0.13). The functional score was also significantly improved by 505 points for the active group over the 311-point improvement for placebo group compared to baseline (p = 0.02). In the pilot subset evaluated, rotational strength increased from baseline to 6 weeks (3.2 N, p = 0.03); however, no other measures were significant. The authors concluded that long-duration low-intensity US significantly reduced pain and improved joint function in patients with moderate-to-severe OA knee pain. The clinical findings suggested that US may be used as a conservative non-pharmaceutical and non-invasive therapeutic option for patients with knee OA. Moreover, these researchers stated that additional research is needed on non-weight bearing joints of the musculoskeletal system as well as extended treatment time frames and follow-up. They stated that future research will examine the long-term outcomes of this therapeutic option. Such research could provide significant healthcare benefit and perhaps change the way knee OA is managed early in the patient care continuum.
The authors stated that in this study, patients with knee OA had an average BMI of greater than 30 and were not asked to reduce or eliminate their pain medications. The use of moderate levels of prescription pain may have reduced the main effect of the home intervention. Furthermore, the patient population was primarily Caucasian, and the study was conducted in a rural environment. Limited patients were enrolled in the ROM and strength pilot studies. The active SAM group consistently had larger improvement of individual outcome measures; however, small group sizes potentially limited the power of the statistical analysis. These investigators stated that future studies conducted on ROM and strength should include larger sample sizes.
Best et al (2020) stated that patients diagnosed with OA and presenting with symptoms are seeking conservative therapeutic options to reduce pain, improve function, and avoid surgery. Sustained acoustic medicine (SAM), a multi-hour treatment has demonstrated improved clinical outcomes for patients with knee OA. These investigators compared the costs and effectiveness of multi-hour SAM treatment versus the SOC over a 6-month timeframe for OA symptom management. A decision-tree analysis was employed to compare the costs and effectiveness of SAM treatment versus SOC in patients with OA. Probabilities of success for OA treatment and effectiveness were derived from the literature using systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Costs were derived from Medicare payment rates and manufacturer prices. Functional effectiveness was measured as the effect size of a therapy and treatment pathways compared to a SOC treatment pathway. A sensitivity analysis was carried out to determine which cost variables had the greatest effect on deciding which option was the least costly. An incremental cost-effectiveness plot comparing SAM treatment versus SOC was also generated using 1,000 iterations of the model. Finally, the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) was calculated as the cost of SAM minus cost of SOC divided by functional effectiveness of SAM minus functional effectiveness of SOC. Base case demonstrated that over 6 months, the cost and functional effectiveness of SAM was $8,641 and 0.52 versus SOC at $6,281 and 0.39, respectively. Sensitivity analysis demonstrated that in order for SAM to be the less expensive option, the cost per 15-min session of PT would need to be greater than $88, or SAM would need to be priced at less than or equal to $2,276. Incremental cost-effectiveness demonstrated that most of the time (84 %) SAM treatment resulted in improved functional effectiveness but at a higher cost than SOC. The authors concluded that in patients with OAs, SAM treatment demonstrated improved pain and functional gains compared to SOC but at an increased cost. Based on the SAM treatment ICER score being less than or equal to $50,000, it appeared that SAM is a cost-effective treatment for knee OA.
The authors stated that this cost-effectiveness analysis had several drawbacks. First, Medicare rates were assumed to be 75 % of the commercial private payer rate, i.e., for every $1 spent with Medicare, the commercial rate would be $1.33. Commercial rates may be higher than this in some parts of the country based on negotiated rates between providers and payers, upwards of 100 % higher with certain payers. Second, costs used in the analysis were based on accepted treatment guidelines as identified by the ACR and were not prospectively captured. As well, costs were assumed to be national averages; thus, would vary by region of the country. Third, opioid use was not examined, only topical NSAIDs. Topical NSAIDs were shown to be effective in relieving pain in identified systematic reviews and meta-analysis; and were used based on their short-term positive effects. Longer term, some of these patients may be prescribed opioids. The risks of addiction to opioids (and associated costs and outcomes) were not evaluated. This could be evaluated in future studies. Fourth, no complication rates or costs of them were assumed for therapies used in the analysis. Considering many were very low, the cost and effect were assumed to be minimal.
Madzia et al (2020) noted that SAM is an emerging, non-invasive, non-narcotic, home-use US therapy for the daily treatment of joint pain. In a multi-center study, these researchers examine the effectiveness of SAM combined with a 1 % diclofenac US gel patch in the treatment of pain and improving function in patients with knee OA. The Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) were followed. A total of 32 patients (18 men and 14-women; average age of 54 years) with moderate-to-severe knee pain and radiographically confirmed knee OA (Kellgren-Lawrence (KL) grade II/III) were enrolled for treatment with the SAM device and diclofenac patch applied daily to the treated knee. SAM US (3-MHz, 0.132 W/cm2, 1.3 W) and 6-g of 1 % diclofenac were applied with a wearable device for 4 hours daily for 1 week, delivering 18,720 Joules of US energy per treatment. The primary outcome was the daily change in pain intensity using a NRS (0 to 10), which was assessed before intervention (baseline, day 1), before and after each daily treatment, and after 1 week of daily treatment (day 7). Rapid responders were classified as those patients exhibiting greater than a 1-point reduction in pain following the 1st treatment. Change in WOMAC score from baseline to day 7 was the secondary functional outcome measure. Furthermore, a series of daily usability and user experience questions related to device’s ease of use, functionality, safety, and effectiveness, were collected. Data were analyzed using t-tests and repeated measure ANOVAs. The study had a 94 % retention rate, and there were no AEs or study-related complaints across 224 unique treatment sessions. Rapid responders included 75 % of the study population. Patients exhibited a significant mean NRS pain reduction over the 7-day study of 2.06-points (50 %) for all subjects (n = 32, p < 0.001) and 2.96-points (70 %) for rapid responders (n = 24, p < 0.001). The WOMAC functional score significantly improved by 351 points for all subjects (n = 32, p < 0.001), and 510 points for rapid responders (n = 24, p < 0.001). Over 95 % of patients found the device safe, effective and easy to use, and would continue treatment for their knee OA symptoms. The authors concluded that SAM combined with 1 % topical diclofenac rapidly reduced pain and improved function in patients with moderate-to-severe OA-related knee pain. The clinical findings suggested that this approach may be used as a conservative, non-invasive therapeutic option for patients with knee OA. Moreover, these researchers stated that additional research is needed on non-weight bearing joints of the musculoskeletal system as well as different topical drugs that could benefit from improved localized delivery. These investigators stated that while this trial did not examine the effect of SAM on cartilage, given the short duration of the study, future research is needed to determine the role of SAM as an OA disease-modifying agent. In addition, these researchers stated that future research on SAM as a means for localized drug delivery of NSAIDs and reduced OA disease progression is of great interest. Additional studies could examine the dosimetry of SAM and NSAIDs to provide clinically meaningful pain reduction further while minimizing the use of drugs. The use of SAM with other topical agents such as dexamethasone before, during, and after SAM treatment may also be of interest to the clinical community. It should also be noted the findings of this study were confounded by the combined use of SAM and 1 % diclofenac US gel patch.
Winkler et al (2021) stated that musculoskeletal injuries account for 10 million work-limited days per year and often lead to both acute and/or chronic pain, and increased chances of re-injury or permanent disability. Conservative therapeutic options include various modalities, NSAIDs, and physical rehabilitation programs. SAM is an emerging prescription home-use mechano-transductive device to stimulate cellular proliferation, increase micro-streaming and cavitation in-situ, and to increase tissue profusion and permeability. In a systematic review and meta-analysis, these investigators examined the clinical evidence on SAM and measurable outcomes in the literature. They carried out a systematic literature review using PubMed, EBSCOhost, Academic Search Complete, Google Scholar and ClinicalTrials.gov to identify studies examining the effects of SAM on the musculoskeletal system of humans. Studies identified were selected based on inclusion criteria and scored on the Downs and Black checklist. Study design, clinical outcomes and primary findings were extracted from included studies for synthesis and meta-analysis statistics. A total of 372 subjects were included in the 13 clinical research studies reviewed including 5 level-I, 4 level-II and 4 level-IV studies. A total of 67 subjects with neck and back myofascial pain and injury, 156 subjects with moderate-to-severe knee pain and radiographically confirmed knee OA (Kellgren-Lawrence grade II/III), and 149 subjects with generalized soft-tissue injury of the elbow, shoulder, back and ankle with limited function. Primary outcomes included daily change in pain intensity, change in WOMAC score, change in Global Rate of Change, and functional outcome measures including dynamometry, grip strength, ROM, and diathermic heating (temperature measurement). The authors concluded that SAM treatment provided tissue heating and tissue recovery, improved patient function and reduction of pain. When patients failed to respond to physical therapy, SAM proved to be a useful adjunct to facilitate healing and return-to-work. These investigators stated that as a non-invasive and non-narcotic treatment option with an excellent safety profile, SAM may be considered a good therapeutic option for practitioners.
The authors stated that this systematic review/meta-analysis had several drawbacks. First, although the systematic review focused on SAM for the treatment of musculoskeletal injuries, it was possible that other relevant studies using similar treatment parameters (3-MHz US at 1.3 W) are available in the scientific literature to further aggregate and synthesize the clinical literature. This limitation was beyond the scope of this research but could be considered in a future analysis paying close attention to time, duration, dose delivered and regularity of US treatment. Second, the literature search strategy employed in this review found 13 relevant studies specific to SAM that are more than other past reviews on SAM, it was possible that some relevant studies were missed that were not available in English language or those in the grey literature which are emerging on this new therapeutic treatment. Third, several of the outcome variables used in the studies differed in both measure, physical location on the body, condition being treated and control group that limited the scope of meta-analysis. However, these researchers are confident that the most relevant clinical studies on SAM have been identified, and the categorical grouping of the studies supports the inferences drawn.
Intra-Articular Injection of Autologous, Fat-Derived Orthobiologics
In a systematic review, Holzbauer et al (2024) examined the available evidence on the effects of intra-articular injections of fat-derived orthobiologics (FDO) in the treatment of primary KOA over a mid-term follow-up period. These investigators carried out a systematic literature search using databases of Scopus, PubMed, Ovid Medline, and the Cochrane Library. Studies examining intra-articular injection of FDO with a minimum number of 10 KOA patients, a follow-up period of at least 2 years, and at least 1 reported functional parameter (pain level or PROMs) were included. Exclusion criteria entailed focal chondral defects and techniques including additional arthroscopic bone marrow stimulation. In 28 of 29 studies, FDO showed a subjective improvement in symptoms (pain and PROMs) up to a maximum follow-up of 7.2 years. Radiographic cartilage regeneration up to 3 years post-operatively, as well as macroscopic cartilage regeneration investigated via 2nd-look arthroscopy, may corroborate the favorable clinical findings in patients with KOA. The methodological heterogeneity in FDO treatments resulted in variations in cell composition and represented a drawback in the current state of knowledge. However, the findings of this systematic review suggested that FDO injection resulted in beneficial mid-term results including symptom reduction and preservation of the affected joint in KOA patients. Moreover, these researchers stated that further investigation is needed to determine the optimal processing, dosage, and administration (including additional substances) of FDO as well as post-operative mobilization to define its ideal role in the treatment regimen of patients with KOA.
The authors stated that the key drawback of this review was that it contained plain descriptive outcomes of studies fulfilling the inclusion criteria regardless of their study design. Due to a lack of studies comparing FDO to a uniform control group, it was not possible to phrase a reasonable research question for a meta-analysis examining the superiority of FDO; thus, there is a need for further RCTs comparing FDO to other therapeutic options to gain further insights into the effectiveness of FDO. Regarding the included studies examining FDO, the heterogeneity of study quality and treatment methods should be kept in mind when assessing the descriptive outcomes. Autologous fat tissue may be the common substrate of FDO; however, it is ultimately applied after minimal or, to some extent, maximal manipulation. The categories tissue stromal vascular fraction (tSVF), cellular stromal vascular fraction (cSVF), and adipose-tissue-derived stromal/stem cells (ASC) aim to categorize the techniques, but even within these sub-categories, a wide range of different methods are used.
Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
In a systematic review and meta-analysis, Comino-Suarez e al (2024) examined if transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is superior to control groups or other interventions for pain relief and improving functionality in patients with KOA. These investigators searched PubMed, the Physiotherapy Evidence Database, the Cochrane Library, ProQuest, and Scopus databases from inception to July 2022 to identify randomized clinical trials. The main outcomes were subjective perception of pain intensity measured either with the VAS or with the NRS; and the functionality, assessed with the WOMAC; and secondary outcomes included pressure pain threshold, conditioned pain modulation, and safety. These researchers identified 10 randomized clinical trials (634 subjects). The results showed an important effect favoring tDCS for pain relief (MD = -1.1 cm, 95 % CI: -2.1 to -0.2) and for improving functionality (SMD = -0.6, 95 % CI: -1.02 to -0.26). There was also a significant improvement in pressure pain threshold (MD = 0.9 Kgf/cm 2 , 95 % CI: 0.1 to 1.6). The certainty of evidence according to GRADE was generally moderate. The authors concluded that these findings suggested that tDCS was a safe treatment for reducing pain intensity, improving functionality, and the pressure pain thresholds in patients with KOA. Moreover, these researchers stated that future well-designed studies with larger sample-sizes, longer follow-up periods, extended tDCS treatments, and exploring different stimulations sites are needed to determine the optimal tDCS dose and parameters in patients with KOA.
The authors stated that this study had 2 main drawbacks. First, the quality of this evidence was down-graded because of the high levels of heterogeneity among the studies, making the comparability of studies difficult. This heterogeneity could be explained by different participant characteristics (severity grade of KOA, age, duration of disease), tDCS protocols (target brain area, dosage of stimulation, electrodes sizes, number of sessions), and study designs with a short follow-up period, which could not be used to determine the long-term effects of the interventions. Second, the proportion of studies assessed as “high risk” (30 %) due to “some concerns” (60 %) was also a limitation, which was mainly due to the absence of information on the bias selection of reported results related to the pre-specified statistical analysis.
Meniscal Root Tears – Surgical Treatments
In a case-series study, Lee et al (2009) examined the short-term effectiveness of arthroscopic pullout suture repair in treating posterior root tears (PRTs) of the medial meniscus. From March 2004 to August 2006, a total of 26 patients (27 knees) with PRTs of the medial meniscus were treated with arthroscopic pullout suture repair surgery by the senior author. Of these, 20 consecutive patients (21 knees) with a minimum of 2 years' follow-up treated by arthroscopic pullout suture repair were analyzed. Clinical results by use of the Lysholm knee and Hospital for Special Surgery scores and radiographic grade were evaluated, both pre-operatively and at final follow-up. Furthermore, the 2nd-look arthroscopic findings for 10 knees were analyzed. A radiographic evaluation using the criteria of K-L grading at final follow-up showed an increase in radiographic grade by 1 grade in only 1 knee. On the 2nd-look arthroscopies carried out in 10 knees (47.6 %), all repaired menisci had healed completely without additional chondral lesions in the knee. The mean Hospital for Special Surgery scores improved from 61.1 pre-operatively to 93.8 at final follow-up (p < 0.0001), and the mean pre-operative Lysholm knee scores improved from 57.0 to 93.1 at final follow-up (p < 0.0001). Re-tear was found in 1 knee at the 6-month follow-up, and re-operation was carried out with the same procedure used for the index surgery. The authors concluded that arthroscopic pullout suture repair was an effective treatment for alleviating meniscal symptoms in patients with a symptomatic PRT of the medial meniscus with degenerated articular cartilage of less than grade III. Furthermore, no discernable degenerative arthritis changes were observed in terms of radiographic features with the limited short-term follow-up.
In a retrospective study, Chung et al (2015) compared the clinical and radiologic results of partial meniscectomy with those of refixation in patients with medial meniscus PRTs (MMPRTs) at a minimum 5-year follow-up. Between 2005 and 2009, patients with MMPRTs who had been followed-up for at least 5 years after a partial meniscectomy (group M, n = 20) or pullout repair (group R, n = 37) were recruited. The mean follow-up duration was 67.5 months in group M and 72.0 months in group R. Clinical assessments, including the Lysholm score and IKDC Subjective Knee Form score, and radiographic assessments, including the K-L grade and medial joint space width, were evaluated pre-operatively and at final follow-up. These investigators compared the pre-operative results with the final results in each group, and they compared the final results of groups M and R; and 5-year survival rates were also assessed. The mean Lysholm score (p = 0.039) and IKDC score (p = 0.037) improved significantly; however, the width of the medial joint space (p < 0.001) and K-L grade (p < 0.001) worsened significantly in both groups. When these researchers compared the final results, group R had significantly better Lysholm scores (p = 0.002) and IKDC scores (p < 0.001) than group M. Group R showed less K-L grade progression (p = 0.005) and less medial joint space narrowing (p < 0.001) than group M. The rate of conversion to TKA was 35 % in group M, whereas there was no conversion to TKA in group R. The 5-year survival rates in groups M and R were 75 % and 100 %, respectively (p < 0.001). The authors concluded that for MMPRTs, re-fixation was more effective than partial meniscectomy in terms of the clinical and radiologic outcomes and survival for at least 5 years' follow-up. Re-fixation slowed the progression of arthritic changes compared with partial meniscectomy, although it did not prevent the progression of arthrosis completely.
In a systematic review, Feucht et al (2015) examined the results of arthroscopic trans-tibial pullout repair (ATPR) for posterior medial meniscus root tears (PMMRTs). These researchers carried out a systematic electronic search of the PubMed database and the Cochrane Library in September 2014 to identify studies that reported clinical, radiographic, or second-look arthroscopic outcomes of ATPR for PMMRTs. Included studies were abstracted regarding study characteristics, patient demographic characteristics, surgical technique, rehabilitation, and outcome measures. The methodologic quality of the included studies was assessed with the modified Coleman Methodology Score. A total of 7 studies with a total of 172 patients met the inclusion criteria. The mean patient age was 55.3 years, and 83 % of patients were women. Pre-operative and post-operative Lysholm scores were reported for all patients. After a mean follow-up period of 30.2 months, the Lysholm score increased from 52.4 pre-operatively to 85.9 post-operatively. On conventional radiographs, 64 of 76 patients (84 %) showed no progression of K-L grading; MRI showed no progression of cartilage degeneration in 84 of 103 patients (82 %) and revealed reduced medial meniscal extrusion in 34 of 61 patients (56 %). On the basis of second-look arthroscopy and MRI in 137 patients, the healing status was rated as complete in 62 %, partial in 34 %, and failed in 3 %. Overall, the methodologic quality of the included studies was fair, with a mean modified Coleman Methodology Score of 63. The authors concluded that ATPR significantly improved functional outcome scores and appeared to prevent the progression of osteoarthritis (OA) in most patients, at least during a short-term follow-up. Complete healing of the repaired root and reduction of meniscal extrusion appeared to be less predictable, being observed in only approximately 60 % of patients. Conclusions regarding the progression of OA and reduction of meniscal extrusion were limited by the small number of patients undergoing specific evaluation (44 % and 35 % of the study group, respectively).
Chung et al (2016) stated that although interest in medial meniscus posterior root tear (MMPRT) repair has increased, few case series have been reported. In a meta-analysis, these investigators examined the clinical and radiological effects of MMPRT repair by pooling pre- and post-operative data from case-series reports. They carried out a literature search using Medline/PubMed, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and Embase databases. Pre- and post-operative data were pooled to examine the effects of MMPRT repair, including the Lysholm score improvement, meniscal extrusion (mm) reduction, progression of the K-L grade, as well as cartilage status according to the Outerbridge classification. Treatment effects included paired standardized mean differences (difference in the pre- and post-operative mean outcomes divided by the standard deviation) for the Lysholm score and meniscal extrusion, as well as the pooled event rates of progression of K-L grade and cartilage status. As treatment effects, the Lysholm score increased by as much as 3.675 (p < 0.001), whereas meniscus extrusion was not reduced (n.s.). The overall pooled event rates of progression of K-L grade and cartilage status were 10.6 % and 17.3 % (p < 0.001), respectively. The authors concluded that according to the current literature, MMPRT repair resulted in significant improvements in the post-operative clinical subjective scores compared with the pre-operative status; however, meniscus extrusion was not reduced. Considering the occurrence of progression of K-L grade and cartilage status, it did not prevent the progression of arthrosis completely. Based on these findings, repair resulted in favorable outcomes for MMPRT.
James et al (2017) examined recent advances in the diagnosis and treatment of meniscus root tears. Over the last 10 years, meniscal root tears have become increasingly recognized as a significant source of pain and disability. Meniscal root tears are often caused by chronic degenerative changes or acute trauma to the knee. When left untreated, root tears result in meniscal extrusion, increased contact pressures and decreased contact areas on the articular cartilage, and rapidly progressive OA. Meniscal root repairs may be carried out in active individuals with mild-to-no OA. Biomechanical studies have shown that anatomic root repairs result in decreased contact stresses and increased contact areas on the articular cartilage. While multiple root repair techniques have been described, the authors’ preferred technique is a 2-tunnel trans-tibial (TT) pullout repair that allows for reduction of the root under direct arthroscopic visualization. Short- and mid-term outcome studies demonstrated improvement in pain and function. Moreover, these investigators stated that additional studies are needed to examine the long-term outcomes, especially with respect to the slowing of the progression of knee OA in patients following meniscal root repair. Additional studies are needed to evaluate the longevity of repair constructs and integrity of the articular cartilage at long-term follow-up.
LaPrade et al (2017) noted that outcomes following TT pull-out repair for posterior meniscal root tears remain under-reported, and factors that may affect outcomes are unknown. In a cohort study, these investigators compared patient-centered outcomes following TT pull-out repair for posterior root tears in patients less than 50 years and greater than or equal to 50 years of age. These researchers hypothesized that improvement in function and activity level at minimum 2-year follow-up would be similar among patients less than 50 years of age compared with patients 50 years of age or older and among patients undergoing medial versus lateral root repairs. Inclusion criteria were patients aged 18 years or older who underwent anatomic TT pull-out repair of the medial or lateral posterior meniscus root by a single surgeon. All patients were identified from a data registry consisting of prospectively collected data in a consecutive series. Cohorts were analyzed by age (less than 50 years [n = 35] versus 50 years or older [n = 15]) and laterality (lateral [n = 15] versus medial [n = 35]). Patients completed a subjective questionnaire pre-operatively and at minimum of 2 years post-operatively (Lysholm, Tegner, WOMAC, 12-Item Short Form Health Survey [SF-12], and patient satisfaction with outcome). Failure was defined as revision meniscal root repair or partial meniscectomy. The analysis included 50 knees in 49 patients (16 females, 33 males; mean age of 38.3 years; mean BMI of 26.6). Of the 50 knees, 45 were available for analysis; 3 of 45 (6.7 %) required revision surgery. All failures were in patients less than 50 years of age, and all failures underwent medial root repair. No significant difference in failure was found based on age (p = 0.541) or laterality (p = 0.544). For age cohorts, Lysholm and WOMAC scores revealed significant post-operative improvement. For laterality cohorts, all functional scores significantly improved post-operatively. No significant difference was noted in post-operative Lysholm, WOMAC, SF-12, Tegner, or patient satisfaction scores for the age cohort or the laterality cohort. The authors concluded that outcomes following posterior meniscal root repair significantly improved post-operatively and patient satisfaction was high, regardless of age or meniscal laterality. Patients less than 50 years of age exhibited outcomes similar to those of patients 50 years of age or older, as did patients who underwent medial versus lateral root repair. These investigators stated that TT double-tunnel pull-out meniscal root repair provided improvement in function, pain, and activity level, which may aid in delayed progression of knee OA.
In a retrospective study, Krych et al (2020) examined the demographic characteristics as well as radiographic findings of medial versus lateral meniscal root tears at time of presentation; treatment decisions and clinical outcomes of patients undergoing medial versus lateral root repair, and risk factors for worse clinical and radiographic outcomes. These researchers identified patients with symptomatic, medial, or lateral meniscus PRTs with a minimum 2-year follow-up. Radiographs were graded using K-L scores; and sub-analysis was carried out on 62 patients who underwent root repair. Tegner, Lysholm, IKDC scores, and progression to arthroplasty were analyzed in the repair groups. Patient demographics, radiographic findings, as well as clinical outcomes were compared between medial meniscus posterior horn root tear (MMRT) and lateral meniscus root repair (LMRT). Of the 141 root tears, 109 were MMRTs, 30 were LMRTs, and 2 patients had both. At the time of injury, patients with MMRTs had a significantly higher age (MMRT = 51.4 years versus LMRT = 24.6 years, p < 0.0001), BMI (MMRT = 32.1 versus LMRT 25.8, p < 0.0001), K-L score (MMRT = 1.3 versus LMRT = 0.6, p < 0.0001), and higher rate of major meniscal extrusion (MMRT = 72 % versus LMRT = 20 %, p < 0.0001). Of the 30 LMRT, 30/30 (100.0 %) were treated with meniscal repair. With MMRT, 52/109 (48 %) were treated non-operatively, 27/109 (25 %) with partial meniscectomy, and 30/109 (27 %) with meniscal repair. A total of 62 patients underwent meniscus root repair with an average 41-month follow-up. LMRT had significantly increased IKDC (LMRT = 89.5, MMRT = 80.4, p = 0.02) and Tegner scores (LMRT = 6.5, MMRT = 5.1, p < 0.05) compared with MMRT. The authors concluded that compared with MMRTs, LMRTs occurred in younger male patients with lower BMI, less cartilage degeneration, less extrusion on MRI, and more commonly with a ligament injury. These investigators noted that although good-to-excellent clinical outcomes were achieved in select patients for both medial and lateral meniscus root repair, LMRTs may have better results following repair, suggesting that differences in injury and patient characteristics may contribute to differences in these outcomes.
In a systematic review, Stein et al (2020) reported changes in outcomes for 3 therapeutic options for meniscal root tears. These investigators systematically searched databases including PubMed, SCOPUS, and ScienceDirect for relevant articles. Criteria from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute was employed for a quality assessment of the included studies. A meta-analysis was carried out to analyze changes in outcomes for meniscal repair. A total of 19 studies, 12 level-III and 7 level-IV, were included in this systematic review, with a total of 1,086 patients. Conversion to TKA following partial meniscectomy ranged from 11 % to 54 %, 31 % to 35 % for non-operative, conservative treatment, and 0 % to 1 % for meniscal repair. Studies comparing repair with either meniscectomy or conservative treatment found greater improvement and slower progression of K-L grade with meniscal repair. A meta-analysis of the studies included in the systematic review using forest plots showed repair to have the greatest mean difference for functional outcomes (IKDC and Lysholm Activity Scale) and the lowest change in follow-up joint space. The authors concluded that in patients who experienced meniscal root tears, meniscal repair may provide the greatest improvement in function and lowest risk of conversion to TKA when compared with partial meniscectomy or conservative methods. Partial meniscectomy appeared to provide no benefit over conservative treatment, placing patients at a high risk of requiring TKA in the near future. However, future high-quality studies, both comparative studies and randomized trials, are needed to draw further conclusions and better impact treatment decision-making.
LaPrade et al (2021) described the most current knowledge regarding meniscal root tears with a primary focus on diagnosis, management, and implications for the health of the knee joint. Historically overlooked or treated with meniscectomy, meniscal root tears are now known to disrupt the biomechanical role of the meniscus in the joint, resulting in the rapid development of knee OA. Tears of the medial and lateral posterior meniscal roots are associated with differing etiologies and sequelae, especially in regard to their action as secondary stabilizers of the knee, making root tears an important consideration in ligament reconstruction surgery. The authors discussed diagnostic challenges and well-established hallmarks of meniscus tears on imaging, and concluded by explaining the preferred method for surgical repair of the meniscal roots and appropriate rehabilitation. These investigators stated that meniscal root tears have been called a “silent epidemic”. Much progress has been made since meniscectomy was the treatment of choice for meniscal tears. Meniscectomy, non-operative management, and non-anatomic repair are recognized to be ineffective at restoring the native kinematics of the joint, and fail to stop progression to OA. Awareness of root tears and how to spot them has improved; however, is far from perfect. The results of many years of research and the work of many authors argued unequivocally for repairing meniscal root tears when possible. Finding root tears can be difficult, even on MRI. Recognizing radiological signs closely correlated with root tears, such as the “ghost sign”, SONK lesions, and peripheral extrusion of the meniscus can aid practitioners in spotting these injuries, along with a thorough clinical examination and history. Surgical repair has been described with excellent results using a TT tunnel pull-out technique, with anatomic reduction of the meniscus and fixation on the anterior tibia. Even with anatomic fixation, extrusion remains a problem and more work is needed to examine if an additional stabilization suture is a practical solution to this issue in the long-term. After surgery, patients must not neglect to follow an appropriate rehabilitation regimen.
Familiari et al (2022) noted that meniscus root tears (MRTs) are increasingly being recognized and treated because of improved awareness and diagnostics. These injuries commonly occur in combination with knee ligament injuries. Untreated posterior MRTs have been reported to increase contact pressure and decrease contact area, ultimately resulting in unfavorable joint loading and development of early OA. Posterior lateral MRTs (PLMRTs) also have been reported to increase antero-tibial translation and pivot shift in ACL-deficient knees; thus, it is important to repair MRTs when possible to restore knee joint loading and kinematics. Several techniques for repair of the PLMRT have been described. The authors described their preferred technique for repair of PLMRT using an all-suture anchor. This technique was reproducible, did not need a tunnel, mitigated bungee effect of the TT technique, and the anchor could be easily inserted on the foot-print without a need for a guide.
Nakagawa et al (2022) stated that the menisci play an important role in the shock-absorbing and load-dispersing functions of the knee. In addition, they contribute to its stability. Meniscal root tears substantially affect meniscal hoop function and accelerate cartilage degeneration. Furthermore, LMPRT have been reported to affect antero-lateral knee laxity and tibio-femoral contact pressure in knees with ACL injury; thus, appropriate management of LMPRT is crucial in restoring knee function. Meniscus extrusion has attracted attention due to its association with early OA. Recently, an arthroscopic centralization technique has been proposed to reduce meniscal extrusion. During this procedure, the capsule attached to the meniscus is sutured to the edge of the tibial plateau using suture anchors. In a narrative review, these investigators examined the effects of LMPRT repair and arthroscopic centralization of lateral meniscal extrusion. They carried out a literature search and described the surgical procedure for a LMPRT repair using a pull-out technique and an arthroscopic centralization for lateral meniscus (LM) extrusion. The authors concluded that specific MRI signs were useful for the diagnosis of LMPRT. Pull-out techniques could restore knee stability and load distribution function and result in favorable clinical outcomes. Arthroscopic centralization of the extruded LM caused by meniscectomy and lateral discoid meniscus achieved satisfactory clinical outcomes at the 2-year follow-up. Biomechanical studies showed that this procedure reduced meniscus extrusion and had beneficial effects on load distribution and joint stability. These researchers stated that centralization technique is a promising surgical treatment for extruded lateral menisci due to meniscectomy and discoid meniscus. However, due to the lack of high-level evidence studies such as RCTs in this field, it remains necessary to accumulate evidence and long-term follow-up to confirm the effectiveness of LMPRT repair and the centralization technique.
Khoo and Yau (2023) stated that complete meniscus root tear is associated with meniscus extrusion resulting in a loss of meniscus function and accelerated knee OA. Existing small, retrospective ,case-control studies suggested that the outcomes were different between medial and lateral meniscus root repair. In a meta-analysis, these investigators examined if such discrepancies exist. Studies examining the outcomes of surgical repair of posterior meniscus root tears, with re-assessment MRI or 2nd-look arthroscopy, were identified via a systematic search of PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library. The degree of meniscus extrusion, healing status of the repaired meniscus root, and functional outcome scores following repair were the outcomes of interest. Among the 732 studies identified, 20 studies were included in this systematic review. A total of 624 knees and 122 knees underwent MMPRT and LMPRT repair, respectively. The amount of meniscus extrusion following MMPRT repair was 3.8 ± 1.7 mm, which was significantly larger than the 0.9 ± 1.2 mm observed after LMPRT repair (p < 0.001). Significantly better healing outcomes were observed on re-assessment MRI after LMPRT repair (p < 0.001). The post-operative Lysholm score and IKDC score was also significantly better after LMPRT than MMPRT repair (p < 0.001). The authors concluded that LMPRT repairs resulted in significantly less meniscus extrusion, markedly better healing outcomes on MRI, and superior Lysholm/IKDC scores, when compared to MMPRT repair. This was the first meta-analysis that examined the differences in the clinical, radiographic, and arthroscopic results of MMPRT and LMPRT repair.
Moon et al (2023) stated that MMPR plays a vital biomechanical role in transmitting and distributing the load applied to the meniscus; thus, reducing the impact on the adjacent articular cartilage and preserving the knee joint. Damage to this structure can result in functional meniscal deficiency, followed by a poor clinical course and rapid progression of OA. Most MMRTs are degenerative in nature and usually occur during light daily activities with clinical symptoms, such as painful popping. MMRTs are usually diagnosed based on several characteristic MRI findings. Although there are several therapeutic options for MMRTs, surgical repair should be prioritized as much as possible to restore the biomechanical function of MMPR, which is supported by the favorable clinical outcomes reported in several clinical studies. However, consensus has yet to be reached regarding the optimal surgical indications, surgical techniques, as well as rehabilitation protocols for MMRTs. Addressing these issues necessitates further multi-disciplinary research. In addition, unresolved challenges persist, such as residual meniscus extrusion, the limited healing rate of MMRTs, and the progression of OA]. Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine may offer potential solutions for these matters. In particular, cell-based tissue regeneration, employing various cell sources, is especially promising as a novel strategy to improve meniscus repair. Several aspects in this field also need to be addressed, such as the recruitment and adhesion of cells to the site of meniscus tears, their differentiation into the appropriate cell phenotype, proliferation, and manipulation methods for clinical application. Nonetheless, considering their reparative potential and mounting pre-clinical evidence, it is expected that most of these issues will be resolved in the near future. The authors concluded that collaboration and joint research with these innovative fields are anticipated to potentially delay the progression of OA by overcoming several existing limitations and optimizing the treatment strategies for MMRTs.
Wang et al (2023) stated that medial meniscal posterior root tear (MMPRTs) is a common lesion of the knee joint, and repair surgery is a well-established therapeutic option. However, patients with obvious varus alignment are at an increased risk for MMPRT and can suffer from a greater degree of medial meniscus extrusion, which results in the development of OA following repair. The effectiveness of high tibial osteotomy (HTO) as a means of correcting this malformation, and its potential benefits for MMPRT repair, remains unclear. In a systematic review, these researchers examined if HTO would affect the outcome of MMPRT repair in clinical scores and radiological findings. According to the PRISMA guidelines, these investigators searched PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library databases for studies examining the outcomes of MMPRT repair and extracted data regarding characteristics of patients, clinical functional scores and radiologic outcomes. One reviewer extracted the data, and 2 reviewers evaluated the risk of bias and conducted a synthesis of the evidence. Articles were eligible if they reported the results of MMPRT repair with exact mechanical axis. A total of 15 studies with 625 cases of high methodological quality were identified; 11 studies were assigned to the MMPRT repair group (M) with 478 cases performing MMPRT repair only, and others belonged to the MMPRT repair and HTO group (M and T) performing HTO and MMPRT repair. Most of the studies had significantly improved clinical outcome scores, especially in M groups; and the radiologic outcomes demonstrated that the OA deteriorated in both groups with similar degree in about 2-year follow-up. The authors concluded that HTO was a useful supplement in the treatment of MMPRT patients with severe OA and the clinical and radiological outcomes were similar with MMPRT repair alone. These researchers noted that which would be better for patients' prognosis generally -- performing MMPRT repair alone or a combination of HTO and MMPRT repair -- was still controversial. They suggested taking K-L grade into account. These researchers stated that prospective cohort studies and RCTs are needed to aid in making better clinical decisions. Level of Evidence = III.
The authors stated that this review had several drawbacks. First, the heterogeneity of study procedures resulted in outcomes that could not be directly aggregated, making the analysis complex. Second, there was a lack of long-term studies, with most studies (83.3 %) having a follow-up period of less than 5 years, preventing these investigators from making conclusions regarding long-term prognosis. Third, the majority of studies were retrospective and non-randomized, comparative studies, introducing selection bias into the conclusions.
Migliorini et al (2023) noted that meniscal tears are common and may impair knee function and biomechanics. In a meta-analysis, these researchers compared meniscal repair versus resection in patients with symptomatic meniscal tears in terms of PROMs, joint width, surgical failure, and rate of progression to OA at conventional radiography. This study was conducted according to the 2020 PRISMA statement. In August 2023, the following databases were accessed: PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Embase. Two reviewers independently performed the analysis and a methodological quality assessment of the included studies. All the clinical investigations that compared repair versus resection of meniscal tears were accessed. Data from 20 studies (31,783 patients) were collected. The mean BMI was 28.28 ± 3.2 kg/m2, and the mean age was 37.6 ± 14.0 years. The mean time elapsed from injury to surgery was 12.1 ± 10.2 months and the mean medial joint width was 4.9 ± 0.8 mm. Between studies comparability at baseline was found in age, women, BMI, time from injury to surgery, and length of the follow-up, PROMs, medial joint width, and stage of OA. The resection group reported a greater Lysholm score (p = 0.02). No difference was observed in the IKDC (p = 0.2). A total of 9 studies reported data on the rate of failures at a mean of 63.00 ± 24.7 months. No difference was observed between the 2 groups in terms of persistent meniscal symptoms (p = 0.8); 6 studies reported data on the rate of progression to TKA at a mean of 48.0 ± 14.7 months follow-up. The repair group exhibited a lower rate of progression to TKA (p = 0.0001); 6 studies reported data on the rate of advanced knee OA at a mean of 48.0 ± 14.7 months of follow-up. The repair group exhibited a lower rate of advanced knee OA (p = 0.0001). No difference was observed in the mean joint space width (p = 0.09). The authors concluded that meniscal repair was associated with a lower progression to knee OA at approximately 6 years of follow-up compared to partial meniscectomy. No difference in PROMs, medial joint width, and failures were observed.
In a systematic review, Hurmuz et al (2024) examined the available evidence on the outcomes of meniscectomy versus meniscal repair for posterior medial meniscus injuries, with a focus on OA development. These researchers evaluated the incidence of OA following both treatment modalities, compared functional outcomes post-treatment, identified factors influencing therapeutic choice, and provided evidence-based recommendations for clinical decision-making. They carried out a comprehensive search strategy across PubMed, Scopus, and Embase up until December 2023, adhering to PRISMA guidelines. The primary outcomes included OA development, functional knee outcomes, and QOL measures. A total of 6 studies met the inclusion criteria, entailing 298 patients. The systematic review showed a significant association between meniscal repair and decreased progression of OA compared to meniscectomy. Patients who have undergone meniscectomy reported a 51.42 % progression rate towards OA, significantly higher than the 21.28 % observed in patients who have undergone meniscal repair. Functional outcomes, as measured by the IKDC and Lysholm scores, were markedly better in the repair group, with average scores of 74.68 (IKDC) and 83.78 (Lysholm) compared to 67.55 (IKDC) and 74.56 (Lysholm) in the meniscectomy group. In addition, the rate of complete healing in the repair group was 71.4 %, as 1 study reported, indicating a favorable prognosis for meniscal preservation. However, these pooled data should be interpreted with consideration to the heterogeneity of the analyzed studies. The authors concluded that meniscal repair for posterior medial meniscus injuries was superior to meniscectomy in preventing OA development and achieving better functional outcomes and QOL post-treatment. These findings strongly suggested the adoption of meniscal repair as the preferred treatment modality for such injuries, emphasizing the need for a paradigm shift in clinical practice towards preserving meniscal integrity to optimize patient outcomes.
In a systematic review, Lee et al (2024) examined structural and clinical outcomes following meniscus root tear treatment as currently described in the literature. These investigators carried out a literature review to identify studies published since 2011 on the effectiveness of surgical repair, meniscectomy, and non-operative management in the treatment of meniscus root tears. Patient cohorts were grouped into treatment categories, with medial and lateral root tears analyzed separately; data were collected on patient demographics, structural outcomes including joint space width, degree of medial meniscal extrusion, progression to TKA, and PROMs. Risk of bias was examined using the MINORS (methodological index for non-randomized studies) criteria. Heterogeneity was measured using the I-statistic, and outcomes were summarized using forest plots without pooled means. The 56 included studies comprised a total of 3,191 patients. Mean age among the included studies ranged from 24.6 to 65.6 years, whereas mean follow-up ranged from 12 to 125.9 months. Heterogeneity analysis revealed significant differences among studies. Change in joint space width ranged from -2.4 to -0.6 mm (i.e., decreased space) after meniscectomy (n = 186) and -0.9 to -0.1 mm after root repair (n = 209); change in medial meniscal extrusion ranged from -0.6 to 6.5 mm after root repair (n = 521) and 0.2 to 4.2 mm after meniscectomy (n = 66); and event rate for TKA ranged from 0.00 to 0.22 after root repair (n = 205), 0.35 to 0.60 after meniscectomy (n = 53), and 0.27 to 0.35 after non-operative treatment (n = 93). Root repair produced the greatest numerical increase in IKDC and Lysholm scores of the 3 treatment arms. Furthermore, root repair improvements in KOOS-Pain (range of 22 to 32), Sports and Recreational Activities (range of 23 to 36), QOL (range of 22 to 42), and Symptoms subscales (range of 10 to 19), in studies with low risk of bias. The authors concluded that the available evidence reporting on the treatment of meniscus root tears is heterogenous and largely limited to Level III and IV studies. These researchers stated that current evidence suggested root repair may be the most effective treatment strategy in lessening joint space narrowing of the knee and producing improvements in PROMs.
Genicular Nerve Stimulation for the Treatment of Knee Osteoarthritis
Lin et al (2020) stated that peri- and post-operative pain often develops following joint replacement for severe knee OA. A continuous nerve block is frequently used for pain relief; however, the risks of infection and catheter dislodgement should be considered. In a mini-review, these investigators discussed the neuro-anatomy of the knee joint and examined the newest evidence on the sue of peripheral nerve stimulation (PNS) in the management of knee pain. These researchers employed a systematic approach to search for relevant studies. They used the combination of "peripheral nerve stimulation" and "knee pain" as the key words for the literature search using the electronic data-base without language or article type restriction. The search period was from the earliest record to August 2019. This mini review identified 6 studies, 4 were related to PNS for the management of post-operative knee pain and 2 studied neuropathic pain. Most of the studies were either case series or case reports. Based on the search result, PNS was likely to be a feasible and safe treatment for knee pain; however, its effectiveness remains uncertain. The authors concluded that the findings of this mini review showed that PNS was feasible for the management of knee pain, especially in the post-operative period. The procedure was safe under US guidance used for proper placement of the electrodes near the target nerves. These researchers stated that prospective RCTs are needed to validate the effectiveness of PNS in acute and chronic knee pain.
Hasoon et al (2021) noted that chronic knee pain continues to cause increasing levels of functional deficits, mobility issues, and decreased QOL in the U.S. Initial treatment for knee pain consists of PT, weight loss, medication management, injections, as well as RFA; however, definitive treatment often requires surgery. In a single-case study, these researchers described the case of a patient who refused operative management as well as RFA of the genicular nerves and obtained significant pain relief from PNS of the superior lateral genicular nerve and the saphenous nerve for severe knee pain caused by OA. The authors concluded that they discussed the first use of PNS targeting the superior lateral genicular nerve and the saphenous nerve for a patient with severe knee pain from OA who refused operative management as well as RFA. These investigators stated that the findings of this single-case study were encouraging, and they believed that PNS may be a viable option for patients who do not qualify for surgical intervention, refuse surgery, or have failed other conservative treatments and pharmacotherapies. Moreover, these investigators stated that further investigations are needed to confirm the findings of this single-case report.
Kelly et al (2023) stated that chronic knee pain is increasing in prevalence and is associated with substantial limitations in functional mobility. While PNS has been increasingly used to treat various chronic pain conditions, there is a paucity of research examining the potential therapeutic benefit of PNS for chronic knee pain. In a retrospective, single-center, case-series study, these researchers examined the effectiveness of PNS for the treatment of chronic knee pain. This trial was carried out between March 2021 and June 2022. The primary outcome was percent pain reduction 6 months after PNS implantation. Outcome data were gathered via chart review and phone calls to patients. Secondary outcomes included percent pain reduction 2 weeks and 2 months after implantation and AEs related to the procedure and nerve stimulation. A total of 14 subjects received PNS for chronic knee pain during the study period; 3 of these subjects received bilateral PNS for a total of 17 cases. The mean percent pain reduction 6 months after implantation was 52 % (SD = 28.2) (n = 12). A total of 75.0 % of subjects (9/12) reported 50 % or more reductions in pain 6 months after implantation. No AEs were reported relating to the implantation procedure and/or nerve stimulation. The authors concluded that PNS was a safe and effective treatment modality for chronic knee pain with demonstrated long-term benefit. Moreover, these investigators stated that robust investigations including prospective studies should clarify patient factors associated with improved treatment response.
The authors noted that this study had important limitations; the most important one was the retrospective nature of the investigation. Like all retrospective, observational studies, this trial was limited in its external validity by its lack of blinding and comparative interventions. Similarly, this study was subject to patient recall bias and was hindered by an imperfect ability to collect complete patient data. Frequently, missing data were a consequence of patients being lost to follow-up. Reasons why patients were lost to follow-up were not immediately clear, except for 1 deceased patient. Lastly, this trial was not designed nor powered to prove that PNS for chronic knee pain would reduce and/or prevents later surgical intervention.
Fruh et al (2023) noted that the average age of the population is increasing, resulting in a high incidence of chronic degenerative knee pathologies. Several therapeutic options, including surgical interventions are available to help mitigate these pathologies. However, the percentage of subjects with chronic post-surgical knee pain is still estimated at 16 % to 20 %. Neuromodulation techniques such as spinal cord stimulation and dorsal root ganglion stimulation (DRGS) are therapeutic options for subjects with chronic knee pain. The evidence for PNS is minimal due to a limited number of neuromodulation systems capable of targeting the distal part of the lower limbs. These investigators examined the safety and effectiveness of externally powered PNS systems for the treatment of chronic intractable knee pain targeting the saphenous nerve. Patients suffering from chronic intractable post-surgical knee pain received landmark-guided PNS of the branches of the saphenous nerve. All implants were carried out with an externally powered PNS system to avoid lead migration as a result of cross-joint lead positions tunneling towards an implantable pulse generator (IPG) to the trunk. Data were collected retrospectively. Subject-reported outcome was measured via NRS values on a 10-point scale measuring pain intensity at rest and in motion. Additional data were collected for the subjects treated at the Charite location, including QOL with the SF-36 form, quality of sleep with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and mood states with the short form of the General Depression Scale (GDS). A total of 33 patients received direct to permanent implant, landmark-guided PNS of the saphenous nerve branches; 6 (18.2 %) subjects reported non-sufficient initial benefit from the therapy and were explanted. Two subjects were explanted due to wound infections. The total study population reported included 25 patients. These subjects reported significant improvements related to pain, QOL, mood quality, and quality of sleep. Furthermore, subjects were able to reduce their opioid medication significantly after PNS therapy. The authors concluded that externally powered PNS at the saphenous nerve branches was a straight-forward, selective and safe technique for patients with chronic knee pain. The landmark-guided implantation technique was less invasive than classical neuromodulation techniques such as spinal cord or DRGS and complication rates remain low. These researchers stated that the short-term results were promising and demonstrated considerable reductions in pain scores and opioid intake; and long-term results are pending.
Furthermore, an UpToDate review on “Management of knee osteoarthritis” (Deveza and Bennell, 2024, 2024) does not mention genicular nerve stimulation or peripheral nerve stimulation as a management / therapeutic option / tool.
Iovera Cryoneurolysis for Pain Management Before and After Total Knee Arthroplasty
Mihalko et al (2021) hypothesized that pre-operative cryoneurolysis of the superficial genicular nerves in patients with OA would decrease post-operative opioid use relative to SOC treatment in patients undergoing TKA. Patients received either cryoneurolysis (ITT: n = 62) or SOC (ITT: n = 62). The cryoneurolysis group received cryoneurolysis of the superficial genicular nerves 3 to 7 days before surgery plus a similar pre-operative, intra-operative, and post-operative pain management protocol as the SOC group. The primary end-point was cumulative opioid consumption in total daily morphine equivalents from discharge to the 6-week study follow-up assessment. Secondary end-points included changes in pain and functional scores. Primary and secondary end-points were assessed using ITT and PP analyses. The primary end-point was not met in the ITT analysis (4.8 [cryoneurolysis] versus 6.1 [SOC] mg; p = 0.0841) but was met in the PP analysis (4.2 versus 5.9 mg; p = .0186) after excluding patients with medication deviations or missing follow-up data. Compared with the SOC group, the cryoneurolysis group had improved functional scores and numerical improvements in pain scores across all follow-up assessments, with significant improvements observed in current pain from baseline to the 72-hour and 2-week follow-up assessments and pain in the past week from baseline to the 12-week follow-up assessment. The authors concluded that the findings from the PP analysis suggested that pre-operative cryoneurolysis in patients with KOA could reduce opioid consumption and improve functional outcomes following TKA. Moreover, these researchers stated that future studies could examine the analgesic effectiveness, safety, and opioid-sparing benefits of cryoneurolysis in patients with prior long-term opioid use undergoing TKA.
The authors stated that a drawback of this trial was the lack of a sham control group. Although these investigators could not discount the possibility that the improved outcomes in the cryoneurolysis group were partially attributable to a placebo effect, they noted that results from a sham-controlled study of cryoneurolysis for the treatment of KOA pain revealed a statistically significant reduction in pain in patients who received cryoneurolysis. Furthermore, for the KOOS joint replacement (JR) scores, the highest (worst) score was imputed for questions that patients did not answer; regardless of this imputation that would bias against the study intervention, cryoneurolysis improved knee function outcome scores across multiple time-points. The use of a single institution allowed for greater control over pain management and PT protocols. Because this study was carried out at a single center, the findings may not be generalizable to larger, more diverse populations, especially given that there appeared to be wide variation in post-operative opioid prescribing habits even within a single healthcare system, necessitating system-wide quality improvement programs. Some participants in the current trial did not receive spinal anesthesia and instead received general anesthesia, which is associated with a higher rate of infection and a longer hospital LOS compared with spinal anesthesia. Given these data, it may be expected that the use of general anesthesia could bias against the outcomes assessed in this study. However, despite the numerically larger number of patients in the cryoneurolysis group who received general anesthesia compared with the SOC group, improved pain management and function were observed with this intervention. In addition, while subjects who were not prescribed tramadol were excluded from the PP analysis, tramadol use was not directly measured; as such, it was not possible to evaluate how patient non-adherence could have affected observed outcomes. Additionally, patient satisfaction measures and cost efficiency were not analyzed, and future studies incorporating these analyses may aid in providing a comprehensive understanding of treatment effects beyond clinical outcomes. Lastly, given the number of medical deviations that could have confounded patient outcomes, results from the PP analysis were likely more meaningful than the ITT analysis; however, the PP analysis should be interpreted with caution because of the small sample size and because it was more likely to be biased toward the null hypothesis than the ITT analysis.
In a retrospective, single-center study, Urban et al (2021) examined if cryoneurolysis of superficial genicular nerves combined with SOC would reduce post-operative opioids and pain following TKA. Data from patients who underwent TKA at a single center were analyzed. Patients who received standardized cryoneurolysis before TKA were compared with a historical control group including patients who underwent TKA without cryoneurolysis. Both groups received a similar peri-operative multi-modal pain management protocol. The primary outcome was opioid intake at various time-points from hospital stay to 6 weeks after discharge; additional outcomes included pain, hospital LOS, and ROM. The analysis included 267 patients (cryoneurolysis group: n = 169; control group: n = 98). During the hospital stay, the cryoneurolysis group had 51 % lower daily MMEs (47 versus 97 MMEs; ratio estimate, 0.49; 95 % CI: 0.43 to 0.56; p < 0.0001) and 22 % lower mean pain score (ratio estimate, 0.78; 95 % CI: 0.70 to 0.88; p < 0.0001) versus the control group. The cryoneurolysis group received significantly fewer cumulative MMEs, including discharge prescriptions, than the control group at week 2 (855 versus 1,312 MMEs; ratio estimate, 0.65; 95 % CI: 0.59 to 0.73; p < 0.0001) and week 6 (894 versus 1,406 MMEs; ratio estimate, 0.64; 95 % CI: 0.57 to 0.71; p < 0.0001). The cryoneurolysis group had significant 44 % reduction in overall hospital LOS (p < 0.0001) and greater flexion degree at discharge (p < 0.0001). The authors concluded that the findings of this study suggested that, when added to a multi-modal TKA pain protocol, pre-operative cryoneurolysis provided superior pain control and allowed patients to take fewer opioids during hospitalization and during the 6-week recovery period than a multi-modal TKA pain protocol alone.
The authors stated that this study had several drawbacks. First, this was a retrospective trial; thus, patients were not randomized between treatments. These factors precluded the ability to determine causality, given that it was possible that variables other than the addition of cryoneurolysis to a multi-modal pain protocol may have contributed to the observed reductions in pain and opioid consumption. When the practice in this study began to use cryoneurolysis in 2018, there was limited information on its use in TKA, which necessitated ongoing protocol refinement and optimization, including optimization of the US-guided technique for identifying the femoral cutaneous nerves and changes in the type of needle tip used to administer cryoneurolysis. Because of this changing of the cryoneurolysis protocol over time, TKA procedures conducted in 2018 were excluded from the current analysis to enable more reliable comparisons between patients treated with versus without a standardized cryoneurolysis procedure. This approach resulted in a time gap between the cryoneurolysis group (2019 to 2020) and the comparator control group (2017); however, no relevant changes were made to the multi-modal protocol over this time period. Of note, the adjusted mean total opioid prescription at discharge was significantly lower in the more contemporary cryoneurolysis group (2019 to 2020) than that in the control group (2017); as such, changes in opioid-prescribing patterns over time (e.g., greater awareness of risks of opioids, greater understanding that lower doses of opioids can provide effective analgesia) could have impacted the opioid prescription outcomes. However, it is the opinion of the authors that this was unlikely because the practice did not formally alter their opioid-prescribing policy over this time period, and the lower pain scores and opioid consumption observed during the hospital stay in the cryoneurolysis versus the control group were consistent with reduced opioid requirements at discharge in the cryoneurolysis group compared with the control group. Ultimately, even if opioid reductions between the cryoneurolysis and control groups were influenced by greater awareness of the need to reduce opioid prescriptions, the short-term pain outcomes and long-term functional outcomes with cryoneurolysis were optimized, which supported the effectiveness of cryoneurolysis in managing pain and optimizing recovery. Second, it was possible that a trend toward reduced LOS after TKA may partially explain the significant reduction in LOS for the patients who received cryoneurolysis compared with the control group, given that the patients who received cryoneurolysis were treated more than 1 year later. Third, limited pre-operative data were available for the study sample, and pre-operative opioid use, which is a strong predictor of the amount and duration of post-operative opioid use after TKA, may not have been fully captured; this may have affected the ability to reliably examine for between-group differences in this potentially confounding variable. Of note, a greater proportion of patients in the cryoneurolysis group in 2019 to 2020 (96 %) had no prior opioid exposure compared with the control group from 2017 (81 %). It was the opinion of the authors that this trend could be in part related to a decreased likelihood of primary care providers to prescribe opioids for OA pain control over time because of increased awareness of the opioid epidemic. Because it was not possible to determine if pre-operative exposure may have played a role in the significant difference between groups in opioid prescriptions at the 2-week follow-up, further investigation is needed to determine the influence of pre-operative opioid exposure on post-operative opioid use in patients receiving cryoneurolysis. Fourth, the use of a single center and surgeon allowed for excellent control over implementation of the multi-modal pain protocol and surgical technique; however, this also limited the generalizability of findings. Fifth, pain data were not available to compare groups after discharge. Nonetheless, given that patients in the cryoneurolysis group showed improved functional outcomes and were prescribed significantly fewer cumulative opioids than patients in the control group, it was reasonable to assume that pain intensity in the cryoneurolysis group was not higher than that in the control group. Sixth, because this was a retrospective study with historical controls, other confounding factors could have influenced study outcomes. However, potentially confounding variables (i.e., BMI, prior opioid exposure, age, and American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) physical status classification) were included in the multi-variable regression model to optimize comparison of the 2 groups. Last, cost-effectiveness was not assessed in this study, which would benefit from further assessment in a separate study. Finally, data pertaining to healthcare costs were not included in this study. Despite a previous study suggesting that opioid prescriptions were associated with increased healthcare costs, further study is needed to examine if cryoneurolysis would result in potential cost-savings for patients.
Swisher et al (2022) noted that TKA is often associated with severe, prolonged post-surgical pain; thus, local anesthetic-based peripheral nerve blocks (PNBs) are frequently used for post-operative analgesia. Cryoneurolysis entails the use of freezing temperatures to provide a reversible sensory (and motor) block with a duration measured in weeks and months, more commensurate with the typical period of post-TKA pain. In a randomized-controlled, pilot study, these researchers examined the use of this modality for the treatment of pain following TKA to determine the feasibility of and optimize the study protocol for a subsequent definitive clinical trial; and estimate analgesia and opioid reduction within the first 3 post-operative weeks. A convenience sample of 16 patients undergoing primary TKA with a single-injection and/or continuous adductor canal nerve block were randomized to receive either active cryoneurolysis or a sham procedure targeting the infra-patellar branch of the saphenous nerve, in a participant-masked fashion. Since this was a pilot study with a relatively small number of subjects; thus, resulting data were not analyzed statistically. Compared with subjects receiving sham, the active treatment group reported slightly lower average and worst pain scores as well as opioid consumption and sleep disturbances due to pain at a majority of post-operative time-points between post-operative days (POD) 4 to 21. The authors concluded that pre-operative US-guided cryoneurolysis of the infra-patellar branch of the saphenous nerve was feasible and may provide analgesic benefits for multiple weeks following TKA. These researchers stated that a definitive RCT appeared warranted.
In a case-series, pilot study, Roth et al (2023) examined the use of pre-operative cryoneurolysis in 10 patients presenting for TKA. Billing codes were used to identify patients who had previously undergone TKA, pre-operative cryoneurolysis and PT at a Midwestern community hospital. Data collected included anesthetic management strategies, multi-modal analgesic therapies, post-anesthesia care unit (PACU) pain scores, pain scores during PT, and achievement of a ROM during PT. A total of 9 of 10 patients who received pre-operative cryoneurolysis had PACU pain scores of 0 (0 to 10 scale) up to 90 mins post-operatively. Pain scores immediately following cryoneurolysis therapy were reduced in all patients reporting pain greater than 0 (1 to 10 pain scale) before their treatment. Increased active ROM trends were noted with reports of decreased pain scores during post-operative PT sessions. The authors concluded that the findings of this case-series pilot study showed potential benefits of using pre-operative cryoneurolysis to provide post-operative pain control and aid with PT recovery following TKA.
Hansen et al (2023) stated that TKA is associated with significant post-operative pain that can limit functional outcomes and patient satisfaction. In recent years, the SOC for post-operative pain management has reduced reliance on opioids in favor of multi-modal analgesia. These regimens consist of systemic medications such as COX-2 inhibitors, acetaminophen, corticosteroids, and gabapentinoids, as well as regional and local approaches such as PNBs and local infiltrative analgesics. Newer therapies, such as cryoneurolysis, are still being studied but have demonstrated promising results. The authors concluded that further investigations are needed to ascertain the ideal pain regimen that will optimize pain control and eliminate the need for post-operative opioids.
McMillan et al (2023) noted that cryoneurolysis is a minimally invasive procedure that employs extreme cold temperature to achieve thermal neurolysis of peripheral sensory nerves. In a retrospective study, these investigators examined the safety of cryoneurolysis as a pre-operative treatment for TKA and evaluated the incidence of major and minor wound complications associated with the procedure. This trial was carried out on 357 patients who underwent cryoanalgesia within 2 weeks of their scheduled TKA. The study found that cryoneurolysis as a pre-operative treatment for TKA did not show an increased incidence of major complications, including acute peri-prosthetic joint infections, skin necrosis, or permanent treatment site nerve damage/neuroma compared to published rates of infection. Complications were minimal, with only 3 cases of infection and 5 cases of superficial cellulitis observed; however, none was directly attributable to the cryoneurolysis procedure. The authors concluded that these findings were encouraging and suggested that cryoneurolysis was a relatively safe adjunct procedure with a similar risk of major or minor complications when used as a pre-operative treatment for TKA.
Diep et al (2023) stated that cryoneurolysis entails percutaneous insertion of a cryoprobe induced to extremely cold temperatures to disrupt peripheral nerve conduction. In a scoping review, these investigators examined the available evidence on the safety and benefits of cryoneurolysis for non-cancer knee pain. The secondary objective was to describe the variations in cryoneurolysis techniques used. Medline, Embase, PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science were searched from their inception to February 2023 for any primary literature examining the use of cryoneurolysis for non-cancer-related knee pain. Data was extracted for study characteristics, intervention characteristics, and clinical outcomes. A total of 14 studies were identified, including 3 RCTs, 4 retrospective, cohort studies, and 7 case studies/series. Two studies included KOA patients, 3 studies included non-specific chronic knee pain patients; and 9 studies included pre- or post-TKA patients. A total of 10 studies targeted the infra-patellar branch of the saphenous nerve while the remaining 4 studies did not report the nerve targeted. Studies consistently reported improvements in pain, function, QOL, and opioid consumption. Most AEs were mild and self-limiting. Considerable variations in technique parameters were observed. The authors concluded that cryoneurolysis is a promising intervention to improve outcomes in non-cancer knee pain populations, especially in mild-to-moderate KOA and pre-TKA populations. Moreover, these researchers stated that cryoneurolysis for knee pain remains largely investigational as more high-quality RCTs are needed to further elucidate effectiveness as well as optimal nerve selection and technique.
Tidwell and DeMarco (2024) noted that KOA is a debilitating chronic disease affecting nearly 50 % of the world's population at some point in their lives. Treatment of pain and loss of function associated with this disease has been limited. In this review, these investigators examined how neural interventions with US guidance may be an emerging option for non-pharmacologic pain relief in patients with KOA.
Cryoneurolysis techniques have been reported to provide pain relief out to 150 days post-treatment in KOA in select individuals. There have also been studies of cryoneurolysis pre-operatively to TKA providing reduced pain, reduced opioid use post-operatively, and shorter hospital LOS. Cooled radiofrequency ablation (CRFA) has been demonstrated to significantly reduce pain, improve functionality, and reduce pharmacologic needs in KOA out to 2 years. Both interventions appeared to have increased accuracy with US, and CRFA appeared to be associated with improved patient outcomes. The research showed the effectiveness of both cryoneurolysis and CRFA in the treatment of KOA. Ultrasound guidance in neurolysis provided an additional tool with real-time, high-accuracy nerve localization. The authors concluded that these therapies should be considered for certain patients to aid in pain management in the non-operative and post-operative phase of KOA management. Moreover, these researchers stated that further investigations are needed to further define the long-term effects and the long-term use of the techniques in knee pain.
Microfracture- and Xeno-Matrix-Induced Chondrogenesis for the Treatment of Focal Traumatic Cartilage Defects of the Knee
In a retrospective study, Allegra et al (2023) examined clinical and instrumental outcomes of the autologous matrix-induced chondrogenesis (AMIC) technique for the treatment of isolated traumatic condyle and femoro-patellar cartilage lesions. A total of 25 patients (12 men, 13 women, mean age of 47.3 years) treated between 2018 and 2021 were reviewed and subdivided into 2 groups based on age (Group A, age of less than 45 years; Group B, age of over 45 years). A clinical evaluation was carried out using the IKDC, Lysholm score and VAS. Cartilage regeneration was examined via magnetic resonance (1.5 Tesla) and classified according to a Magnetic resonance Observation of CArtilage Repair Tissue (MOCART) scoring system. At a minimum follow-up of 2 years, Group A patients obtained greater instrumental results in comparison to group B: in fact, the MOCART score was statistically significantly correlated with IKDC (r = 0.223) (p < 0.001) exclusively in group A. Nevertheless, a significant improvement in clinical functionality was demonstrated in Group B (p < 0.001), showing that this technique was safe, reproducible, and capable of offering satisfactory clinical results regardless of age. Moreover, these researchers stated that it is important to carry out further randomized studies to examine if the procedure is safe and would reduce the risk of post-traumatic OA in patients over 45 years of age.
The authors stated that this study had several drawbacks. First, the limited number of patients enrolled (n = 25), which, however, was in line with the other reports cited, given the uncommonness of the lesions treated with this technique. Second, the non-uniform anatomic distribution of injuries. Compared to an medial femoral condyle (MFC) lesion, a trochlear lesion receives a different load. de Windt et al (2009) revealed some factors related to a better clinical outcome in patients treated using first-generation ACI or MACT or microfracture: defects located at the MFC and patients younger than 30 years, especially those with acute lesions.
Appendix
Zilretta is administered as a 32 mg single intra-articular injection in the knee. Zilretta is not interchangeable with other formulations of injectable triamcinolone acetonide.
References
The above policy is based on the following references:
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Patellar Denervation
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Patellofemoral Replacement (Arthroplasty)
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Miscellaneous Interventions
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- American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS). Surgical management of osteoarthritis of the knee: evidence-based clinical practice guideline. Rosemont, IL: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS); December 4, 2015.
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- Cavallo M, Sayyed-Hosseinian SH, Parma A, et al. Combination of high tibial osteotomy and autologous bone marrow derived cell implantation in early osteoarthritis of knee: A preliminary study. Arch Bone Jt Surg. 2018;6(2):112-118.
- Chatterjee D, McGee A, Strauss E, et al. Subchondral calcium phosphate is ineffective for bone marrow edema lesions in adults with advanced osteoarthritis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2015;473(7):2334-2342.
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- Sihvonen R, Englund M, Turkiewicz A, Jarvinen TL, for the Finnish Degenerative Meniscal Lesion Study Group. Mechanical symptoms and arthroscopic partial meniscectomy in patients with degenerative meniscus tear: A secondary analysis of a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2016;164(7):449-455.
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- Thorlund JB, Englund M, Christensen R, et al. Patient reported outcomes in patients undergoing arthroscopic partial meniscectomy for traumatic or degenerative meniscal tears: Comparative prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2017;356:j356.
- Tidwell CM, DeMarco PJ. Temperature-mediated neural interventions in knee osteoarthritis: A review of cryoneurolysis and cooled radiofrequency ablation with ultrasound guidance. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2024;26(3):89-95.
- Tornbjerg SM, Nissen N, Englund M, et al. Structural pathology is not related to patient-reported pain and function in patients undergoing meniscal surgery. Br J Sports Med. 2017;51(6):525-530.
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Medial Knee Implanted Shock Absorber (MISHA)
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- Gomoll AH, Diduch DR, Flanigan DC, et al. An implantable shock absorber yields an 85% survival-from-arthroplasty rate through 5 years in working-age patients with medial compartment knee osteoarthritis. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2023;31(8):3307-3315.
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Sustained Acoustic Medicine (SAM) for the Treatment of Knee Pain
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- Winkler SL, Urbisci AE, Best TM. Sustained acoustic medicine for the treatment of musculoskeletal injuries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil. 2021;13(1):159.
Meniscal Root Tears – Surgical Treatments
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- Familiari F, Palco M, Russo R, et al. Arthroscopic repair of posterior root tears of the lateral meniscus with all-suture anchor. Arthrosc Tech. 2022;11(5):e781-e787.
- Feucht MJ, Kuhle J, Bode G, et al. Arthroscopic transtibial pullout repair for posterior medial meniscus root tears: A systematic review of clinical, radiographic, and second-look arthroscopic results. Arthroscopy. 2015;31(9):1808-1816.
- Hurmuz M, Ionac M, Hogea B, et al. Osteoarthritis development following meniscectomy vs. meniscal repair for posterior medial meniscus injuries: A systematic review. Medicina (Kaunas). 2024;60(4):569.
- James EW, Johannsen AM, Cinque ME, et al. An evidence-based approach to the diagnosis and treatment of meniscal root tears. Minerva Ortopedica e traumatological. 2017;68(2):81-90.
- Khoo JR, Yau WP. Repair of meniscus root tear -- Is there a difference between medial meniscus root repair and lateral meniscus root repair? A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Orthop Surg (Hong Kong). 2023;31(2):10225536231175233.
- Krych AJ, Bernard CD, Kennedy NI, et al. Medial versus lateral meniscus root tears: Is there a difference in injury presentation, treatment decisions, and surgical repair outcomes? Arthroscopy. 2020;36(4):1135-1141.
- LaPrade RF, Floyd ER, Carlson GB, et al. Meniscal root tears: Solving the silent epidemic. Journal of Arthroscopic Surgery and Sports Medicine. 2021;2(1):47-57.
- LaPrade RF, Matheny LM, Moulton SG, et al. Posterior meniscal root repairs: Outcomes of an anatomic transtibial pull-out technique. Am J Sports Med. 2017;45(4):884-891.
- Lee DR, Lu Y, Reinholz AK, et al. Root repair has superior radiological and clinical outcomes than partial meniscectomy and nonoperative treatment in the management of meniscus root tears: A systematic review. Arthroscopy. 2024 Feb 22 [Online ahead of print].
- Lee JH, Lim YJ, Kim KB, et al. Arthroscopic pullout suture repair of posterior root tear of the medial meniscus: Radiographic and clinical results with a 2-year follow-up. Arthroscopy. 2009;25(9):951-958.
- Migliorini F, Schafer L, Bell A, et al. Meniscectomy is associated with a higher rate of osteoarthritis compared to meniscal repair following acute tears: A meta-analysis. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2023;31(12):5485-5495.
- Moon H-S, Choi C-H, Jung M, et al. Medial meniscus posterior root tear: How far have we come and what remains? Medicina (Kaunas). 2023;59(7):1181.
- Nakagawa Y, Ozeki N, Koga H. A narrative review of lateral meniscus root tears and extrusion: techniques and outcomes. Ann Jt. 2022;7:15.
- Stein JM, Yayac M, Conte EJ, Hornstein J. Treatment outcomes of meniscal root tears: A systematic review. Arthrosc Sports Med Rehabil. 2020;2(3):e251-e261.
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