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Background
This policy is based on the FDA-approved indications for pamidronate, the conclusions of the U.S. Pharmacopeial Convention (USPDI, 2003), and the National Comprehensive Cancer Network Drugs & Biologics Compendium (2008). Bisphosphonates have been shown to be effective in the treatment of osteoporosis. Alendronate (Fosamax) and risedronate (Actonel) have been the most extensively studied bisphosphonates under clinical trials conditions. Both drugs can lower the risk of vertebral and hip fractures by 25 to 50%. However, oral bisphosphonates exhibit gastrointestinal toxicity and strict adherence to constraining therapeutic schemes is mandatory. Pamidronate (Aredia), an intravenous (IV) bisphosphonate, is a much more potent inhibitor of bone resorption than etidronate. Pamidronate is a bisphosphonate that is administered by injection because it is poorly tolerated orally. Pamidronate is approved by the Food and Drug Administration for use in hypercalcemia of malignancy, Paget's disease of the bone, osteolytic bone metastases from breast cancer and osteolytic lesions of multiple myeloma. Newer more potent bisphosphonates, such as oral ibandronate and intravenous zoledronic acid (Zometa), which will allow much less frequent administration, are currently being investigated (Reid, et al. 2002). Moreover, bone-forming agents (e.g., teriparatide) provide another therapeutic option for the treatment of severe osteoporosis. Hypercalcemia of malignancy is a potentially life-threatening complication of cancer resulting from increased bone resorption by osteoclasts. Management of patients with cancer-related hypercalcemia primarily consists of rehydration therapy as well as the use of a variety of available drugs that inhibit bone resorption. One of the drugs used for this purpose is IV bisphosphonate, which has been demonstrated to lower serum calcium levels by interfering with osteoclast activity and stimulating osteoclast apoptosis. In fact, bisphosphonates are now considered the standard treatment for cancer-related hypercalcemia (Berenson, 2002; Hurtado and Esbrit, 2002; Body and Mancini, 2002). Paget's disease of bone, also known as osteitis deformans, is a non-malignant metabolic disease of unknown etiology, with the spine being involved in over 50% of cases. It is one of the most common diseases to affect bone, yet it is rare before the age of 50. Moreover, Paget's disease of bone affects up to 2 to 3% of the population over the age of 60 years. This metabolic bone disorder is characterized by abnormalities of bone turnover, structure and architecture. Bisphosphonates are the first-choice treatment option for patients with active disease (Schneider, et al., 2002; Keen, 2003). The American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) convened an expert multidisciplinary panel to determine clinical practice guidelines for the use of bisphosphonates in the prevention and treatment of bone metastases in breast cancer and their role relative to other therapies for this condition. The pane recommended intravenous (IV) pamidronate for patients with metastatic breast cancer who have imaging evidence of lytic destruction of bone and who are concurrently receiving systemic therapy with hormonal therapy or chemotherapy (Hillner, et al., 2000). A Cochrane evidence review of randomized controlled clinical trials of bisphosphonates in breast cancer concluded that IV pamidronate has been demonstrated to be effective in improving metastatic bone pain (Pavlakis, et al., 2005). The ASCO also convened an expert multidisciplinary panel to determine clinical practice guidelines for the use of bisphosphonates in the prevention and treatment of lytic bone disease in multiple myeloma (MM) and to determine their respective role relative to other conventional therapies for this condition (Berenson, et al., 2002). The available evidence indicates that oral clodronate, IV pamidronate, and IV zoledronic acid are superior to placebo in reducing skeletal complications. A reduction in vertebral fractures has consistently been observed across all studies. No agent has shown a definitive survival benefit. Intravenous zoledronic acid has recently been shown to be as effective as IV pamidronate. Because there are no direct comparisons between clodronate and pamidronate or zoledronic acid, the superiority of one agent cannot be definitively established. However, the panel recommended only IV pamidronate or zoledronic acid in light of the use of the time to first skeletal event as the primary end point and more complete assessment of bony complications in studies evaluating it. Additionally, clodronate is not available in the United States. The choice between pamidronate and zoledronic acid will depend on choosing between the higher drug cost of zoledronic acid, with its shorter, more convenient infusion time (15 minutes), versus the less expensive drug, pamidronate, with its longer infusion time (2 hours). The panel concluded that bisphosphonates provide a meaningful supportive benefit to MM patients with lytic bone disease. A Cochrane evidence review of clinical trials concluded that adding bisphosphonates to the treatment of myeloma reduces pathological vertebral fractures and pain but - from the published evidence - not mortality (Djulbegovic, et al., 2002). The review stated that, based upon current evidence, clodronate or pamidronate may be the preferred agents for this indication. Mayo Clinic's consensus statement on the use of bisphosphonates (e.g., pamidronate and zoledronic acid) in MM (Lacy, et al., 2006) recommended discontinuing bisphosphonates after 2 years of therapy for patients who achieve complete response and/or plateau phase. For patients whose disease is active, who have not achieved a response, or who have threatening bone disease beyond 2 years, therapy can be decreased to every 3 months. Both pamidronate and zoledronic acid have been shown to reduce bone loss in men undergoing androgen deprivation therapy in prostate cancer. However, zoledronic acid has also been shown to increase bone mineral density in these patients (Smith, 2003). In addition, zoledronic acid has been shown in randomized controlled clinical studies to reduce the incidence of skeletal-related events in men undergoing androgen-deprivation therapy. In addition, zoledronic acid has been shown in clinical trials to reduce the incidence of skeletal events in men with osteoblastic bone metastases from prostate cancer. By contrast, a clinical study comparing pamidronate to placebo control in men with bone metastases due to prostate cancer found no significant differences in incidence of skeletal events between the two groups (Lipton, et al., 2002). Although there is evidence that pamidronate increases bone mass, there are no clinical trials demonstrating that intravenous pamidronate decreases fracture rate in postmenopausal osteoporosis or glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. As the experience with etidronate has shown, increases in bone mass may not translate into a reduction in fracture incidence; the quality of the bone that is formed is also important. Solomon (2002) suggested that the notion that an IV dose of a bisphosphonates once yearly or even less often can be used for the treatment of post-menopausal osteoporosis is encouraging. However, before this treatment can be recommended for routine use, more research is needed to ascertain if the risk of fractures is actually lowered and to determine the safety of long-term use of this treatment. This is in accordance with the report by Crandall (2002) who stated that the combination of bisphosphonates (alendronate) with estrogen can increase bone mass density (BMD) more so than each medication given singly in post-menopausal osteoporotic women; however, the utility of these combinations rests on whether bone density changes will translate into decreased fracture rates. Guidelines on treatment of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis from the American College of Rheumatology state that “[b]oth alendronate and risedronate are recommended for the prevention and treatment of glucocorticoid-induced bone loss” and to “[c]onsider calcitonin as second-line agent if patient has contraindication to or does not tolerate bisphosphonate therapy.” An evidence-based assessment conducted by the Royal College of Physicians (2002) noted that while pamidronate and a number of other bisphosphonates have been shown in clinical studies to reduce glucocorticoid-induced bone loss, only the bisphosphonates risedronate, alendronate, and etidronate have been shown to reduce the incidence of fractures. Rapid bone loss following organ transplantation has been attributed to numerous factors, including hypogonadism, cyclosporine, and glucocorticoids. Clinical studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of intravenous pamidronate in reducing the rate of bone loss following organ transplantation (ICSI, 2002). In addition, there is limited evidence that pamidronate reduces the incidence of fractures following organ transplantation (Hodsman, 2001; Cahill, et al., 2001; Aris, et al., 2000; Trombetti, et al., 2000; Fan, et al., 2000; Reeves, et al., 1998). Orcel and Beaudreuil (2002) noted that the available evidence does not support the use of bisphosphonates in the management of patients with reflex sympathetic dystrophy, acute back pain after a vertebral crush fracture, and chronic inflammatory joint disease not treated by glucocorticoids. Although pamidronate has been shown to increase bone mass in postmenopausal osteoporosis and glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis, there are no published prospective randomized controlled clinical trials of the effectiveness of intravenous pamidronate in reducing fracture risk in these conditions. Saad and Schulman (2004) recently reviewed the evidence regarding the role of bisphosphonates in prostate cancer. These investigators concluded that pamidronate has been shown to prevent bone loss, whereas zoledronic acid has been shown to increase bone mass in men undergoing androgen deprivation therapy. Finally, zoledronic acid is the only bisphosphonate that has demonstrated efficacy in reducing objectively measurable skeletal complications in patients with bone metastases secondary to prostate cancer. This is in agreement with the findings of Small et al (2003) as well as Rosen (2004). Rosen stated that clinical trials addressing the treatment of bone metastases related to prostate cancer have shown zoledronic acid to be the only bisphosphonate to have a significant positive effect on skeletal-related events. Small and colleagues (2003) performed a combined analysis of 2 multi-center, randomized, placebo-controlled studies of pamidronate for men with metastatic prostate cancer. The authors concluded that pamidronate failed to demonstrate a significant overall treatment benefit compared with placebo in the palliation of bone pain or reduction of skeletal-related events (defined as pathologic fracture, radiation or surgery to bone, spinal cord compression, or hypercalcemia). In an editorial that accompanied the article by Small, et al., Kelly and Steineck (2003) stated that “the cumulative data on bisphosphonates in patients with castrate metastatic prostate cancer to date have not shown substantial clinical benefits to patients .. until this evidence is provided, routine administration of bisphosphonates in castrate metastatic prostate cancer can not be recommended”. A review of the evidence for the use of pamidronate for ankylosing spondylitis and spondyloarthropathies concluded that results of preliminary studies have yielded promising results, but that “[f]urther studies are required to confirm these preliminary data and to better determine the optimal regimen (dosage and rhythm) of administration” (Toussirot & Wendling, 2005). There is limited evidence from case reports and uncontrolled case series of the effectiveness of pamidronate in the treatment of hypercalcemia associated with immobilization. Massagli and Cardenas (1999) reported on the results of pamidronate treatment of patients with acute SCI who developed immobilization hypercalcemia. Nine patients (7 men, 2 women), ages 15 to 41 years, with SCI (8 tetraplegia, 1 paraplegia) were treated using pamidronate between 1994 and 1998. A single dose of 60 mg of pamidronate resolved the hypercalcemia or its symptoms in 7 (78%) patients within days. One patient required a second dose (90 mg) and one patient required three additional doses (the fourth at 90 mg) to achieve resolution of the hypercalcemia or symptoms. The investigators reported that side effects were mild, and included drug-related fever in one patient and transient asymptomatic hypocalcemia in four patients. The investigators reported that pamidronate was effective in treating immobilization hypercalcemia caused by SCI. The investigators commented that the advantages of pamidronate include its effectiveness, the duration of treatment, ease of administration, and elimination of the need for long-term intravenous saline or daily medications. There is, however, insufficient evidence of the effectiveness of pamidronate in preventing bone loss from immobility. In a prospective placebo-controlled study (n = 11), Bauman et al (2005) examined the effectiveness of pamidronate in reducing bone loss in persons with acute spinal cord injury (SCI). Pamidronate (treatment) or normal saline (placebo) was administered intravenously at baseline (22 to 65 days after injury) and sequentially over 12 months, with follow-up at 18 and 24 months. Regional BMD was lost over time, regardless of group. In the treatment group compared with the placebo group, these investigators noted a mild early reduction in loss of total leg BMD. Significant bone loss from baseline occurred earlier in the placebo group at the regional sites than in the treatment group. However, by the end of the treatment and follow-up phases, both groups demonstrated a similar percent bone loss from baseline. The authors concluded that despite an early reduction in bone loss, pamidronate failed to prevent major, long-term bone loss in persons with acute neurologically complete SCI. Non-infectious inflammatory lesions of the mandible occur in chronic recurrent multi-focal osteomyelitis (CRMO). Diffuse sclerosing osteomyelitis of the mandible (DSOM) is a condition thought to be a localized form of CRMO. Recently, bisphosphonate therapy, especially intravenous pamidronate, has been proposed as a treatment for patients with both CRMO and DSOM who do not improve with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) treatment. However, there is currently insufficient evidence to support the use of pamidronate for these indications. Yamazaki and colleagues (2007) reported a juvenile case of DSOM that showed a favorable response to pamidronate. Although conventional treatments had been ineffective for 5 years, pamidronate administration resulted in conspicuous improvement both clinically and radiographically. Severe adverse reaction was not found except for low-grade fever and lassitude on the day following administration. During the course of the treatment, however, non-suppurative osteomyelitis of the right humerus also occurred, leading to the established diagnosis of chronic recurrent multi-focal osteomyelitis. Pamidronate therapy was again performed successfully with near disappearance of clinical symptoms. Both bone-specific alkaline phosphatase (bone formation marker) and pyridinoline cross-linked carboxyterminal telopeptide of type I collagen (bone resorption marker) showed a marked decrease with pamidronate therapy, suggesting that pamidronate is useful for the treatment of chronic recurrent multi-focal osteomyelitis with inhibitory effect on bone turnover. Olivieri, et al. (2006) stated that the SAPHO (synovitis, acne, pustulosis, hyperostosis and osteitis) syndrome (SaS) includes different skeletal manifestations such as recurrent multi-focal osteomyelitis, osteitis and arthritis, which are frequently associated with different forms of skin pustulosis (palmoplantar pustulosis, pustular psoriasis and severe acne). This syndrome is strictly related to the spondyloarthopathies (particularly to psoriatic arthritis) and many SaS cases fulfill the classification criteria for the spondyloarthopathies. Because SaS is an uncommon disease, current knowledge regarding its therapy is based on limited experiences gained by treating mainly small groups of patients. As a consequence, its treatment is still empiric. Several drugs (including NSAIDs, corticosteroids, sulfasalazine, methotrexate, cyclosporine, leflunomide, and calcitonin) have been administered and obtained conflicting results. The use of antibiotics, due to the isolation of Propionibacterium acnes from the bone biopsies of several subjects with SaS, has not represented a turning point in therapy, although some patients are responsive to this treatment. Initial reports concerning the administration of bisphosphonates (pamidronate and zoledronic acid) and of an anti-TNF-alpha agent (infliximab) are very promising for the future. In any case, larger, multi-center, controlled, double-blind studies are needed to emerge from the present pioneering phase. Kerrison, et al. (2004) reported their clinical experience with pamidronate in childhood SAPHO (synovitis, acne, pustulosis, hyperostosis and osteitis) syndrome. The standard dosing regime for pamidronate was 1 mg/kg to a maximum of 30 mg, administered daily for 3 consecutive days, repeated thrice-monthly as required. Response to treatment was determined by clinical observation, patient subjective response and reduction in other treatments. A total of 7 girls were treated, with a median (range) age at diagnosis of 11 years (9 to 15 years). All patients demonstrated a beneficial clinical response, with relief of pain, increased activity and improved well-being. Subsequent courses of pamidronate were used in all patients. Other medications including corticosteroids and methotrexate could subsequently be stopped. Transient symptoms were associated with the initial course of pamidronate in some patients. No serious adverse events were reported. The authors concluded that pamidronate was associated with a marked improvement in function and well-being, and a reduction of pain and use of other medications in all patients, with no significant adverse effects. Hpwever, this study represented preliminary clinical data. The authors stated that a prospective multi-center study is needed to evaluate the role and long-term safety of pamidronate in the management of childhood SAPHO syndrome. Gaucher's disease, the most prevalent lysosomal storage disorder, is characterized by an autosomal recessive inheritance of a deficiency of lysosomal acid glucocerebrosidase. Three clinical phenotypes are recognized: (i) type 1 (non-neuronopathic), (ii) type 2 (acute neuronopathic), and (iii) type 3 (subacute neuronopathic). Bone lesions are associated with type 1 and type 3 Gaucher's disease. Skeletal involvement is secondary to the progressive accumulation of histiocytes and macrophages laden with glucosylceramide in bone marrow. Pamidronate has been employed in treating patients with Gaucher's disease; however, there is insufficient evidence to support the effectiveness of this approach. Ciana, et al. (1997) reported their findings of 5 patients (3 women and 2 men; age range of 24 to 60 years) who had type 1 Gaucher's disease and severe skeletal involvement (as defined by a combination of osteopenia, osteonecrosis–osteosclerosis, and severe chronic bone pain) who were treated with pamidronate. The drug was given intravenously (45 mg once every 3 weeks for 3 to 5 months); the patients were also given 500 mg of elemental calcium daily. The bone pain decreased rapidly in each patient. The treatment was accompanied by decreases in markers of both bone resorption (urinary hydroxyproline and total deoxypyridinoline [p = 0.08 for both] and urinary calcium [p = 0.04]) and bone formation (serum osteocalcin, p = 0.04). At the end of the treatment period, the mean (± SD) BMD of the lumbar spine, as determined by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, increased from 0.79 ± 0.07 to 0.84 ± 0.05 g per square centimeter (p = 0.04). Fibrous dysplasia (FD) of bone, a rare disease caused by osteoblastic lineage differentiation defects, is associated with bone pain, fracture, and bone deformity, but few therapeutic options are available. Chapurlat (2006) stated that in open studies, bisphosphonate therapy (pamidronate, alendronate) reduced bone pain associated with FD of bone and was associated to some radiological improvement. Calcium, vitamin D, and phosphorus supplements may be useful in patients with deficiency. The author reviewed published data on the treatment of FD with bisphosphonates, calcium, vitamin D, and phosphorus; and presented new results on FD therapy with a more potent bisphosphonate, zoledronic acid, given intravenously at the dose of 4 mg every 6 months. Pamidronate therapy, given intravenously every 6 months at a dose of 180 mg in adults, relieved bone pain, decreased bone resorption, and improved the radiological aspect (filling of lytic lesions and/or thickening of cortices) in approximately 50 % of patients. Bone mass density in affected sites was also significantly increased after pamidronate treatment. Those results have been obtained only in open studies, without controls, by several research groups. In a series of 9 patients on long-term pamidronate treatment, but resisting to this medication and switched to intravenous zoledronic acid, no substantial improvement was observed. There is some biological rationale supporting the use of calcium and vitamin D in patients with deficiency to improve FD lesions by limiting secondary hyper-parathyroidism. Phosphorus supplementation may prevent mineralization defects in those patients who have both FD and renal phosphate wasting. However, there is a lack of clinical evidence for the effectiveness of such supplements. The author concluded that bisphosphonate treatment reduces increased osteoclastic activity in FD and probably improves bone pain, but their use should be better studied in randomized controlled trials. Plotkin, et al. (2003) described the effects of pamidronate therapy in 18 children and adolescents (age at start of therapy, 6.2 to 17.5 years; 8 girls and 10 boys) with polyostotic FD, who received pamidronate for 1.2 to 9.1 years (median of 3.8 years). Treatment cycles with pamidronate (1 to 1.5 mg/kg/day on 3 consecutive days) were given every 4 months. Levels of serum alkaline phosphatase and urinary collagen type I N-telopeptide were elevated at baseline and decreased continuously during the first 3 years of therapy. There was no radiographical evidence of filling of lytic lesions or thickening of the bone cortex surrounding the lesions in any patient. Histo-morphometrical results in dysplastic bone tissue of patients receiving pamidronate (n = 7; time of therapy, 1.4 to 4.8 years) were similar to those of patients without medical therapy (n = 9). No serious side effects were noted. The authors concluded that pamidronate therapy appears to be safe in children and adolescents with polyostotic FD. However, these researchers found no clear evidence that pamidronate has an effect on dysplastic lesions in such patients. Chan and Zacharin (2006) did not find bisphosphonate treatment to be effective in treating children with McCune-Albright syndrome (MAS); one of the main features of MAS is FD. These investigators examined outcomes of pamidronate treatment on FD in 3 children with MAS. Radiological evidence of FD progress was reviewed in these patients who were treated with pamidronate from age 2.5 to 5 years, for 8 to 10.5 years. Despite minimal pain and a low fracture rate in long bones, except where gross deformity exists, all dysplastic lesions present in long bones continued to undergo uncontrolled expansion. In contrast, there were no major new changes in facial configuration, no clinically obvious expansion of sphenoid wing lesions and no encroachment on optic foramina or visual field restriction in any patient. The authors concluded that despite previous reports of limitation or reduction in size of FD lesions in adults and children, it is the authors' experience that bisphosphonate treatment of polyostotic FD in children with MAS does not arrest the expanding nature of these lesions. Furthermore, Chapurlat and Orcel (2008) stated that bisphosphonates have been used in the treatment of FD to relieve bone pain and improve lytic lesions, but they are still under clinical evaluation. Patients with chronic kidney disease have significant abnormalities of bone remodeling and mineral homeostasis and are at increased risk of fracture. The fracture risk for kidney transplant recipients is 4 times that of the general population and higher than for patients on dialysis. Ebeling (2007) noted that organ transplant candidates should be assessed and pre-transplantation bone disease should be treated. Preventive therapy initiated in the immediate post-transplantation period is indicated in patients with osteopenia or osteoporosis, as further bone loss will occur in the first several months following transplantation. Long-term organ transplant recipients should also have bone mass measurement and treatment of osteoporosis. Bisphosphonates are the most promising approach for the management of transplantation osteoporosis. Active vitamin D metabolites may have additional benefits in reducing hyperparathyroidism, particularly after kidney transplantation. The author stated that large, multi-center treatment trials with oral or parenteral bisphosphonates and calcitriol are recommended. In a Cochrane review, Palmer, et al. (2007) assessed the use of interventions for treating bone disease following kidney transplantation. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs comparing different treatments for kidney transplant recipients of any age were selected. All other transplant recipients, including kidney-pancreas transplant recipients were excluded. Two authors independently evaluated trial quality and extracted data. Statistical analyses were performed using the random effects model and the results expressed as relative risk (RR) with 95 % confidence intervals (CI) for dichotomous variables and mean difference (MD) for continuous outcomes. A total of 24 trials (n = 1,299) were included. No individual intervention (bisphosphonates, vitamin D sterol or calcitonin) was associated with a reduction in fracture risk compared with placebo. Combining results for all active interventions against placebo demonstrated any treatment of bone disease was associated with a reduction in the RR of fracture (RR 0.51, 95 % CI 0.27 to 0.99). Bisphosphonates (any route), vitamin D sterol, and calcitonin all had a beneficial effect on the BMD at the lumbar spine. Bisphosphonates and vitamin D sterol also had a beneficial effect on the BMD at the femoral neck. Bisphosphonates were more effective in preventing BMD loss when compared head-to-head with vitamin D sterols. Few or no data were available for combined hormone replacement, testosterone, selective estrogen receptor modulators, fluoride or anabolic steroids. Other outcomes including all-cause mortality and drug-related toxicity were reported infrequently. The authors concluded that treatment with bisphosphonates, vitamin D sterol or calcitonin after kidney transplantation may protect against immunosuppression-induced reductions in BMD and prevent fracture. However, they stated that adequately powered clinical studies are needed to ascertain if bisphosphonates are better than vitamin D sterols for fracture prevention in this population. Moreover, the optimal route, timing, and duration of administration of these interventions remains unknown. Walsh et al (2009) examined the effect of pamidronate on bone loss following kidney transplantation. Patients were randomly assigned to treatment (n = 46) or control (no treatment; n = 47) groups. They were stratified according to parathyroid hormone (PTH) level and sex. Those with PTH level less than 150 pg/ml were excluded. The treatment and control groups received pamidronate, 1 mg/kg, peri-operatively and then at 1, 4, 8, and 12 months or no treatment, respectively. All received calcium (500 mg) and vitamin D (400 units) daily. Immunosuppression was cyclosporine and prednisolone, with no difference in dosing between the 2 groups. Bone mineral density was evaluated by means of dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry of the lumbar spine and hip at baseline and 3, 6, 12, and 24 months, with the primary end point at 1 year of percentage of change in BMD from baseline. Clinical fractures were recorded and also evaluated by means of spinal radiographs at baseline and 1 and 2 years. Pamidronate protected BMD at the lumbar spine; BMD increased by 2.1 % in the treatment group and decreased by 5.7 % in the control group at 12 months (p = 0.001). Protection was also seen in Ward's area of the hip (p = 0.002) and the total hip (p = 0.004). There was no difference in femoral neck BMD loss between the 2 groups. Fracture rates in the treatment and control groups were 3.3 % and 6.4 % per annum, respectively. The authors concluded that pamidronate protects against post-transplantation bone loss at the lumbar spine and Ward's area of the hip. The major limitation of this study was that it was not powered to detect differences in fracture rates. It is also interesting to note that in a randomized controlled study of pamidronate in the prevention of bone loss following liver transplantation, Monegal et al (2009) reported that 90 mg of intravenous pamidronate within the first 2 weeks and at 3 months following liver transplantation preserve lumbar bone mass during the first year, without significant adverse events. However, pamidronate does not reduce bone loss at the femoral neck and furthermore it does not reduce skeletal fractures. Osteonecrosis of the jaws is a recently described adverse effect in patients treated with bisphosphonates and, in particular, potent aminobisphosphonates. Most of the reported cases have been in patients with multiple myeloma or metastatic cancer, though cases have also been identified in patients with osteoporosis. In a systematic review, Woo, et al. (2006) found that, in almost all reported cases, patients received pamidronate or zoledronic acid. The investigators conducted a systematic review of reported on cases of osteonecrosis of the jaws following treatment with bisphosphonates. Twenty-nine papers (n = 368) were included: 10 case series of 10 or more individuals and 19 series or case reports of fewer than 10 patients. There were 368 reported cases of bisphosphonate-associated osteonecrosis of the jaw. The mandible alone was affected in 65% of cases, the maxilla alone in 26%, and both sites in 9%. T he most important risk factors were, according to the reviewers, type and total dose of bisphosphonate, history of trauma, dental surgery or dental infection. Ninety-four per cent of patients received pamidronate or zoledronic acid. Osteonecrosis occurred after having a tooth removed or other dentoalveolar surgery in 60% of cases; the remaining cases occurred spontaneously. Moreover, in a population-based analysis, Wilkinson, et al. (2007) reported that users of intravenous bisphosphonates (pamidronate and/or zoledronic acid) had an increased risk of inflammatory conditions, osteomyelitis, and surgical procedures of the jaw and facial bones. The increased risk may reflect an increased risk for osteonecrosis of the jaw. In an open, pilot study, Feld and colleagues (2009) stated that degenerative lumbar spinal stenosis, manifesting as chronic low back pain and neurogenic claudication, is an increasing chronic problem in an aging population, with limited effective conservative treatment options. Based on previous reports on the utility of subcutaneous calcitonin and 2 anectodal cases, these researchers launched an open trial of intravenous monthly pamidronate infusions, over a course of 3 to 6 months in this condition. Of 24 patients, 75 % reported pain improvement, with the mean visual analog scale score improved by 40 %; while composite functional improvement in walking time, activities of daily living, and sense of well being was reported by 66 %, with a mean improvement of 50 %. The authors concluded that these findings suggested the usefulness of this modality and warrant examination in a controlled clinical trial.
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