Breast Reconstructive Surgery

Number: 0185

Policy

Aetna considers reconstructive breast surgery medically necessary after a medically necessary mastectomy or a medically necessary lumpectomy that results in a significant deformity (i.e., mastectomy or lumpectomy for treatment of or prophylaxis for breast cancer and mastectomy or lumpectomy performed for chronic, severe fibrocystic breast disease, also known as cystic mastitis, unresponsive to medical therapy).  Medically necessary procedures include capsulectomy, capsulotomy, implantation of Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved internal breast prosthesis, mastopexy, insertion of breast prostheses, the use of tissue expanders, or reconstruction with a latissimus dorsi (LD) myocutaneous flap, Ruben’s flap, superficial inferior epigastric perforator (SIEP) flap, superior or inferior gluteal free flap, transverse upper gracilis (TUG) flap, transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flap, deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap, superficial inferior epigastric artery (SIEA) flap, superior gluteal artery perforator (SGAP) flap, profunda artery perforator flap, or similar procedures, including skin sparing techniques. 

Aetna considers the body lift perforator flap technique for breast reconstruction experimental and investigational because there is insufficient evidence to support the effectiveness of this approach.

Aetna considers harvesting (via of lipectomy or liposuction) and grafting of autologous fat as a replacement for implants for breast reconstruction, or to fill defects after breast conservation surgery or other reconstructive techniques medically necessary.

Aetna considers the use of the following acellular dermal matrices medically necessary for breast reconstruction:

  • Alloderm (LifeCell Corp., Branchburg, NJ)
  • Alloderm-RTU (LifeCell Corp., Branchburg, NJ)
  • Cortiva (formerly known as AlloMax, NeoForm) (Davol, Inc., Warwick, RI)
  • DermACELL (Novadaq Technologies, Bonita Springs, FL) 
  • DermaMatrix (Musculoskeletal Transplant Foundation/Synthes CMF, West Chester, PA)
  • FlexHD (Musculoskeletal Transplant Foundation/Ethicon, Inc., Somerville, NJ)
  • Strattice (LifeCell Corp., Branchburg, NJ)

Aetna considers the following acellular dermal matrices experimental and investigational for breast reconstruction:

  • SurgiMend (TEI Biosciences, Boston, MA)

Aetna considers associated nipple and areolar reconstruction and tattooing of the nipple area medically necessary.  Reduction (or some cases augmentation) mammoplasty and related reconstructive procedures on the unaffected side for symmetry are also considered medically necessary.

Aetna considers breast reconstructive surgery to correct breast asymmetry cosmetic except for the following conditions:

  • Surgical correction of chest wall deformity causing functional deficit in Poland syndrome when criteria are met in CPB 0272 - Pectus Excavatum and Poland’s Syndrome: Surgical Correction; or
  • Repair of breast asymmetry due to a medically necessary mastectomy or a medically necessary lumpectomy that results in a significant deformity.  Medically necessary procedures on the non-diseased/unaffected/contralateral breast to produce a symmetrical appearance may include areolar and nipple reconstruction, areolar and nipple tattooing, augmentation mammoplasty, augmentation with implantation of FDA-approved internal breast prosthesis when the unaffected breast is smaller than the smallest available internal prosthesis, breast implant removal and subsequent re-implantation when performed to produce a symmetrical appearance, breast reduction by mammoplasty or mastopexy, capsulectomy, capsulotomy, and reconstructive surgery revisions to produce a symmetrical appearance; or
  • Prompt Footnotes* repair of breast asymmetry due to trauma (

    Footnotes* Note: See CPB 0031 - Cosmetic Surgery for criteria related to surgical repair of cosmetic disfigurement due to trauma).

Aetna considers Biodesign Nipple Reconstruction Cylinder experimental and investigational becasue its effectiveness has not been established.

See also CPB 0017 - Breast Reduction Surgery and Gynecomastia Surgery, and CPB 0244 - Wound Care.

Background

Breast reconstruction surgery rebuilds a breast's shape after a mastectomy. The surgeon forms a breast mound by using an artificial implant or autologous tissue from the abdomen, back or buttocks. Implants are silicone sacs filled with saline (salt water) or silicone gel. The type of reconstruction performed depends on body type, age, general health status, type of cancer treatment or other reason for reconstruction.  

Breast reconstruction may require multiple surgeries, such as nipple and areola reconstruction and tattoo pigmentation, revision surgery involving the breast and/or donor site, and surgery on the opposite breast to correct asymmetry.

Breast reconstruction may involve insertion of tissue expanders or breast implants, capsulotomy, capsulectomy or removal of breast implants. Examples of breast reconstruction techniques include, but may not be limited to, transverse rectus abdominis muscle (TRAM), deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP), latissimus dorsi (LD), superficial inferior epigastric artery (SIEA), transverse upper gracilis (TUG) and superior gluteal artery perforator (SGAP) flap procedures. Procedure names are related to the muscles or blood supplying vessels used and involve surgically removing tissue, typically fat and muscle, from one area of the body to create a breast mound. Pedicled flaps are positioned with their vascular origin intact while free flaps require microsurgery to connect the tiny blood vessels needed to supply the transplanted tissue.

Breast reconstruction using autologous tissue is most commonly performed using the transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flap.  This flap has been in use for 20 years and has provided excellent aesthetic results.  However, a drawback of the TRAM flap is related to donor site morbidity of the abdomen.  The pedicle TRAM flap frequently requires use of the entire rectus abdominis muscle, while the free TRAM flap requires use of as little as a postage-stamp size portion of the muscle.  Abdominal complications resulting from a sacrifice of all or a portion of the rectus abdominis muscle include a reduction in abdominal strength (10 to 50 %), abdominal bulge (5 to 20 %), and hernia (less than 5 %).

Perforator flaps have gained increasing attention with the realization that the muscle component of the TRAM flap does not add to the quality of the reconstruction and serves only as a carrier for the blood supply to the flap.  Thus, the concept of separating the flap (skin, fat, artery, and vein) from the muscle was realized as a means of minimizing the morbidity related to the abdominal wall and maintaining the aesthetic quality of the reconstruction. 

The deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap was introduced in the early 1990's and is identical to the free TRAM flap except that it contains no muscle or fascia.  Use of this flap has been popular in the Europe for a number of years and is now gaining popularity in the United States.  The DIEP flap has been performed at Johns Hopkins for several years.  Candidates for this operation are similar to those for the free TRAM in that there must be adequate abdominal fat to create a new breast.  However, caution must be exercised in performing this technique in women who require large volume reconstruction to prevent the occurrence of fat necrosis or hardening of the new breast.  The operation can be performed immediately following mastectomy or on a delayed basis.  Performance of this operation is slightly more difficult than the free TRAM flap because it requires meticulous dissection of the perforating vessels from the muscle. Deep inferior epigastric perforator flaps tend to have less robust blood flow than is typical with a standard TRAM reconstruction, so careful patient selection is important.  In patients who are non-smokers, who require no more than 70 % of the TRAM flap skin paddle to make a breast of adequate size, and who have at least 1 perforating vessel greater than 1-mm in diameter with a detectable pulse, the incidence of flap complications reportedly is similar to that seen in standard free TRAM flap reconstruction.

The superficial inferior epigastric artery (SIEA) flap uses the same abdominal tissue as the DIEP flap but different blood supplying vessels.

Superior gluteal artery perforator (SGAP) flap or gluteal free flap procedures use tissue from the buttock to create the breast shape. It is an option for women who cannot or do not wish to use the abdominal sites due to thinness, incisions, failed abdominal flap or other reasons. The method is much like the free TRAM flap mentioned above. The skin, fat, blood vessels  SGAP flaps may be performed on women who are not candidates for a TRAM flap or who have had a failed TRAM flap.  Thin women who may not have much tissue in the lower abdominal area often have an adequate amount of tissue in the gluteal region.  The inferior gluteal artery perforator (IGAP) flap shares the same indications as the superior gluteal flap, namely the inability to use the TRAM flap and an abundance of soft tissue in the gluteal region.

The transverse upper gracilis (TUG) flap uses tissue from the upper posterior thigh and lower buttock area and is an option for women with insufficient lower abdominal fat for breast reconstruction.

The latissimus dorsi (LD) flap is tunneled through the axilla, leaving the blood supplying vessels (the thoracodorsal artery and vein) intact. The LD flap has less tissue volume and is usually used in combination with a saline or silicone implant.

Poland syndrome is an extremely rare developmental disorder that is present at birth (congenital).  It is characterized by absence (agenesis) or under-development (hypoplasia) of certain muscles of the chest (e.g., pectoralis major, pectoralis minor, and/or other nearby muscles), and abnormally short, webbed fingers (symbrachydactyly).  Additional findings may include underdevelopment or absence of 1 nipple (including the darkened area around the nipple [areola]) and/or patchy hair growth under the arm (axilla).  In females, 1 breast may also be under-developed (hypoplastic) or absent (amastia).  In some cases, affected individuals may also exhibit under-developed upper ribs and/or an abnormally short arm with under-developed forearm bones (i.e., ulna and radius) on the affected side.  In most cases, physical abnormalities are confined to one side of the body (unilateral).  In approximately 75 % of the cases, the right side of the body is affected.  The range and severity of symptoms may vary from case to case.  The exact cause of Poland syndrome is not known.

Autologous fat grafting (or lipomodeling) uses the patient's own fat cells to replace volume after breast reconstruction, or to fill defects in the breast following breast-conserving surgery (NICE, 2012). It can be used on its own or as an adjunct to other reconstruction techniques. The procedure aims to restore breast volume and contour without the morbidity of other reconstruction techniques.  With the patient under general or local anesthesia, fat is harvested by aspiration with a syringe and cannula, commonly from the abdomen, outer thigh or flank. The fat is usually washed and centrifuged before being injected into the breast. Patients subsequently undergo repeat treatments (typically 2 to 4 sessions) (NICE, 2012). Autologous fat grafting may be delayed for a variable period of time after mastectomy. Most of the evidence for the use of autologous fat grafting in breast reconstruction is as a technique to repair contour defects and deformities. There is less information about the use of autologous fat grafting for complete breast reconstruction.

Guidance from the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE, 2012) states that current evidence on the efficacy of breast reconstruction using lipomodelling after breast cancer treatment is adequate and the evidence raises no major safety concerns. The guidance noted that there is a theoretical concern about any possible influence of the procedure on recurrence of breast cancer in the long term, although there is no evidence of this in published reports. The guidance notes that a degree of fat resorption is common in the first 6 months and there have been concerns that it may make future mammographic images more difficult to interpret.  

A technology assessment on autologous fat injection for breast reconstruction prepared for the Australian and New Zealand Horizon Scanning Network (Humphreys, 2008) found that the technique has the potential to improve some contour defects; however, the results appear to be highly variable, with 2 case series finding that following autologous fat injection between 21 % and 86.5 % of patients showed substantial improvement at post-operative assessment.  Patient satisfaction with the procedure was not reported.  The assessment stated that longer-term follow-up is needed to determine how much of the injected fat survives and how much is eventually re-absorbed by the body.  There are also important safety issues with the procedure, especially in association with the lipo-necrotic lumps that can form in the breast from the injected fat.  Both case series reported this to occur in approximately 7 % of cases, and there is concern that such lumps will impede future cancer detection.

Hyakusoku et al (2009) reported several cases of complications following fat grafting to the breast.  These investigators retrospectively reviewed 12 patients who had received autologous fat grafts to the breast and required breast surgery and/or reconstruction to repair the damage presenting between 2001 and 2007.  All 12 patients (mean age of 39.3 years) had received fat injections to the breast for augmentation mammaplasty for cosmetic purposes.  They presented with palpable indurations, 3 with pain, 1 with infection, 1 with abnormal breast discharge, and 1 with lymphadenopathy.  Four cases had abnormalities on breast cancer screening.  All patients underwent mammography, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging to evaluate the injected fats.  The authors concluded that autologous fat grafting to the breast is not a simple procedure and should be performed by well-trained and skilled surgeons.  Patients should be informed that it is associated with a risk of calcification, multiple cyst formation, and indurations, and that breast cancer screens will always detect abnormalities.  Patients should also be followed-up over the long-term and imaging analyses (e.g., mammography, echography, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging) should be performed.

The American Society of Plastic Surgeons (ASPS) fat grafting task force (Gutowski, 2009) concluded that autologous fat grafting is a promising and clinically relevant research topic.  The current fat grafting literature is limited primarily to case studies, leaving a tremendous need for high-quality clinical studies.

Mizuno and Hyakusoku (2010) stated that recent technical advances in fat grafting and the development of surgical devices such as liposuction cannulae have made fat grafting a relatively safe and effective procedure.  However, guidelines issued by the ASPS in 2009 announced that fat grafting to the breast is not a strongly recommended procedure, as there are limited scientific data on the safety and efficacy of this particular type of fat transfer.  Recent progress by several groups has revealed that multi-potent adult stem cells are present in human adipose tissue.  This cell population, termed adipose-derived stem cells (ADSC), represents a promising approach to future cell-based therapies, such as tissue engineering and regeneration.  In fact, several reports have shown that ADSC play a pivotal role in graft survival through both adipogenesis and angiogenesis.  Although tissue augmentation by fat grafting does have several advantages in that it is a non-invasive procedure and results in minimal scarring, it is essential that such a procedure be supported by evidence-based medicine and that further research is conducted to ensure that fat grafting is a safe and effective procedure.

Acellular dermal matrices are considered a standard-of-care as an adjunct to breast reconstruction. The clinical literature on acellular dermal matrix product in breast reconstruction primarily consists of single institution case series focusing on surgical technique. Much of the early literature focused on AlloDerm brand of acellular dermal matrix, since this product was first to market, but more recent literature has considered other acellular dermal matrix products. Recent literature has provided comparisons of AlloDerm to certain other acellular dermal matrix products, with the authors concluding that there is no significant difference among products (see, e.g., Ibrahim, et al., 2013; Cheng, et al., 2012). While different acellular dermal matrix products are processed differently, these appear to result in minor differences in performance in breast reconstruction.

The Biodesign Nipple Reconstruction Cylinder is intended for implantation to reinforce soft tissue where weakness exists in patients requiring soft tissue repair or reinforcement in plastic and reconstructive surgery.  It is supplied sterile and is intended for 1-time use.  There is a lack of evidence regading the clincial value of this product in breast reconstructive surgery.

Llewellyn-Bennett et al (2012) noted that latissimus dorsi (LD) flap procedures comprise 50 % of breast reconstructions in the United Kingdom.  They are frequently complicated by seroma formation.  In a randomized study, these researchers investigated the effect of fibrin sealant (Tisseel(®)) on total seroma volumes from the breast, axilla and back (donor site) after LD breast reconstruction.  Secondary outcomes were specific back seroma volumes together with incidence and severity of wound complications.  Consecutive women undergoing implant-assisted or extended autologous LD flap reconstruction were randomized to either standard care or application of fibrin sealant to the donor-site chest wall.  All participants were blinded for the study duration but assessors were only partially blinded.  Non-parametric methods were used for analysis.  A total of 107 women were included (sealant = 54, control = 53).  Overall, back seroma volumes were high, with no significant differences between control and sealant groups over 3 months.  Fibrin sealant failed to reduce in-situ back drainage volumes in the 10 days after surgery, and did not affect the rate or volume of seromas following drain removal.  The authors concluded that the findings of this randomized study, which was powered for size effect, failed to show any benefit from fibrin sealant in minimizing back seromas after LD procedures.

Allen et al (2012) stated that the use of perforator flaps has allowed for the transfer of large amounts of soft tissue with decreased morbidity.  For breast reconstruction, the DIEP flap, the superior and inferior gluteal artery perforator flaps, and the transverse upper gracilis flap are all options.  These investigators presented an alternative source using posterior thigh soft tissue based on profunda artery perforators, termed the profunda artery perforator flap.  Pre-operative imaging helped identify posterior thigh perforators from the profunda femoris artery.  These are marked, and an elliptical skin paddle, approximately 27 × 7 cm, is designed 1 cm inferior to the gluteal crease.  Dissection proceeded in a supra-fascial plane until nearing the perforator, at which point sub-fascial dissection was performed.  The flap has a long pedicle (approximately 7 to 13 cm), which allowed more options when performing anastomosis at the recipient site.  The long elliptical shape of the flap allowed coning of the tissue to form a more natural breast shape.  All profunda artery perforator flaps have been successful.  The donor site was well-tolerated and scars have been hidden within the gluteal crease.  Long-term follow-up is needed to evaluate for possible fat necrosis of the transferred tissue.  The authors presented a new technique for breast reconstruction with a series of 27 flaps.  They stated that this is an excellent option when the abdomen is not available because of the long pedicle, muscle preservation, ability to cone the tissue, and hidden scar.

Tanna et al (2013) presented the findings of the largest series of microsurgical breast reconstructions following nipple-sparing mastectomies.  All patients undergoing nipple-sparing mastectomy with microsurgical immediate breast reconstruction treated at New York University Medical Center (2007 to 2011) were identified.  Patient demographics, breast cancer history, intraoperative details, complications, and revision operations were examined.  Descriptive statistical analysis, including t-test or regression analysis, was performed.  In 51 patients, 85 free flap breast reconstructions (n = 85) were performed.  The majority of flaps were performed for prophylactic indications [n = 55 (64.7 %)], mostly through vertical incisions [n = 40 (47.0 %)].  Donor sites included abdominally based [n = 66 (77.6 %)], profunda artery perforator [n = 12 (14.1 %)], transverse upper gracilis [n = 6 (7.0 %)], and superior gluteal artery perforator [n = 1 (1.2 %)] flaps.  The most common complications were mastectomy skin flap necrosis [n = 11 (12.7 %)] and nipple necrosis [n = 11 (12.7 %)].  There was no correlation between mastectomy skin flap or nipple necrosis and choice of incision, mastectomy specimen weight, body mass index, or age (p > 0.05).  However, smoking history was associated with nipple necrosis (p < 0.01).  The authors concluded that the findings of this series represented a high-volume experience with nipple-sparing mastectomy followed by immediate microsurgical reconstruction.  When appropriately executed, it can deliver low complication rates.

Levine et al (2013) stated that recent evolutions of oncologic breast surgery and reconstruction now allow surgeons to offer the appropriate patients a single-stage, autologous tissue reconstruction with the least donor-site morbidity.  These investigators presented their series of buried free flaps in nipple-sparing mastectomies as proof of concept, and explored indications, techniques, and early outcomes from their series.  From 2001 to 2011, a total of 2,262 perforator-based free flaps for breast reconstruction were reviewed from the authors' prospectively maintained database.  There were 338 free flaps performed on 215 patients following nipple-sparing mastectomy, including 84 patients who underwent breast reconstruction with 134 buried free flaps.  Ductal carcinoma in-situ and BRCA-positive were the most common diagnoses, in 26 patients (30.9 %) each.  The most common flaps used were the DIEP (77.6 %), transverse upper gracilis (7.5 %), profunda artery perforator (7.5 %), and superficial inferior epigastric artery flaps (3.7 %).  An implantable Cook-Swartz Doppler was used to monitor all buried flaps.  Fat necrosis requiring excision was present in 5.2 %of breast reconstructions, and there were 3 flap losses (2.2 %); 78 flaps (58.2 %) underwent minor revision for improved cosmesis; 56 (41.8 %) needed no further surgery.  The authors concluded that nipple-sparing mastectomy with immediate autologous breast reconstruction can successfully and safely be performed in a single stage; however, the authors are not yet ready to offer this as their standard of care.

Healy and Allen (2014) noted that it is over 20 years since the inaugural DIEP flap breast reconstruction.  These investigators reviewed the type of flap utilized and indications in 2,850 microvascular breast reconstruction over the subsequent 20 years in the senior author's practice (Robert J. Allen).  Data were extracted from a personal logbook of all microsurgical free flap breast reconstructions performed between August 1992 and August 2012.  Indication for surgery; mastectomy pattern in primary reconstruction; flap type, whether unilateral or bilateral; recipient vessels; and adjunctive procedures were recorded.  The DIEP was the most commonly performed flap (66 %), followed by the superior gluteal artery perforator flap (12 %), superficial inferior epigastric artery perforator flap (9 %), inferior gluteal artery perforator flap (6 %), profunda artery perforator flap (3 %), and transverse upper gracilis flap (3 %).  Primary reconstruction accounted for 1,430 flaps (50 %), secondary 992 (35 %), and tertiary 425 (15 %).  As simultaneous bilateral reconstructions, 59 % flaps were performed.  With each flap, there typically ensues a period of enthusiasm which translated into surge in flap numbers.  However, each flap has its own nuances and characteristics that influence patient and physician choice.  Of note, each newly introduced flap, either buttock or thigh, results in a sharp decline in its predecessor.  In this practice, the DIEP flap has remained the first choice in autologous breast reconstruction.

Weichman et al (2013) examined patients undergoing autologous microsurgical breast reconstruction with and without the adjunct of autologous fat grafting to clearly define utility and indications for use.  A retrospective review of all patients undergoing autologous breast reconstruction with microvascular free flaps at a single institution between November 2007 and October 2011 was conducted.  Patients were divided into 2 groups as follows:
  1. those requiring postoperative fat grafting and
  2. those not requiring fat grafting. 

Patient demographics, indications for surgery, history of radiation therapy, patient body mass index, mastectomy specimen weight, need for rib resection, flap weight, and complications were analyzed in comparison.  A total of 228 patients underwent 374 microvascular free flaps for breast reconstruction.  One hundred (26.7 %) reconstructed breasts underwent post-operative fat grafting, with an average of 1.12 operative sessions.  Fat was most commonly injected in the medial and superior medial poles of the breast and the average volume injected was 147.8 ml per breast (22 to 564 ml).  The average ratio of fat injected to initial flap weight was 0.59 (0.07 to 1.39).  Patients undergoing fat grafting were more likely to have had DIEP and profunda artery perforator flaps as compared to muscle-sparing transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous.  Patients additionally were more likely to have a prophylactic indication 58 % (n = 58) versus 42 % (n = 117) (p = 0.0087), rib resection 68 % (n = 68) versus 54 % (n = 148) (p < 0.0153), and acute post-operative complications requiring operative intervention 7 % (n = 7) versus 2.1 % (n = 8) (p < 0.0480).  Additionally, patients undergoing autologous fat grafting had smaller body mass index, mastectomy weight, and flap weight.  The authors concluded that fat grafting is most commonly used in those breasts with rib harvest, DIEP flap reconstructions, and those with acute post-operative complications.  It should be considered a powerful adjunct to improve aesthetic outcomes in volume-deficient autologous breast reconstructions and additionally optimize contour in volume-adequate breast reconstructions.

The “body lift” perforator flap technique allows for a double fat layer in each breast when both breasts are being reconstructed.  This is offered to the thin patient with ample breasts in the setting of bilateral mastectomy when volume preservation and projection are desired, yet the fat deposits in the waist and tummy are minimal.  A body lift incision design in the waist gives both a tummy tuck effect and a lift of the buttocks in the donor site.  There is currently insufficient evidence to support the use of the body lift perforator flap technique for breast reconstruction.

DellaCroce et al (2012) stated that for patients with a desire for autogenous breast reconstruction and insufficient abdominal fat for conventional abdominal flaps, secondary options such as gluteal perforator flaps or latissimus flaps are usually considered.  Patients who also have insufficient soft tissue in the gluteal donor site and preference to avoid an implant, present a vexing problem.  These researchers described an option that allows for incorporation of 4independent perforator flaps for bilateral breast reconstruction when individual donor sites are too thin to provide necessary volume.  They presented their experience with this technique in 25 patients with 100 individual flaps over 5 years.  The “body lift” perforator flap technique, using a layered deep inferior epigastric perforator/gluteal perforator flap combination for each breast, was performed in this patient set with high success rates and quality aesthetic outcomes over several years.  Patient satisfaction was high among the studied population.  The authors concluded that the body lift perforator flap breast reconstruction technique can be a reliable, safe, but technically demanding solution for patients seeking autogenous breast reconstruction with otherwise inadequate individual fatty donor sites.  This sophisticated procedure overcomes a limitation of autogenous breast reconstruction for these patients that otherwise resulted in a breast with poor projection and overall volume insufficiency.  The harvest of truncal fat with a circumferential body lift design gave the potential added benefit of improved body contour as a complement to this powerful breast reconstructive technique.

Also, UpToDate reviews on “Principles of grafts and flaps for reconstructive surgery” (Morris, 2013) and “Breast reconstruction in women with breast cancer” (Nahabedian, 2013) do not mention the body lift perforator flap technique as a management tool for breast reconstruction.

Surgimend

In May 2015, the FDA warned the manufacturer of Surgimend that it was not cleared for marketing for use in breast reconstruction (FDA. 2015).

Dermacell

Decellularized human skin has been used in a variety of medical applications, primarily involving soft tissue reconstruction, wound healing, and tendon augmentation. Theoretically, decellularization removes potentially immunogenic material and provides a clean scaffold for cellular and vascular in growth. DermACELL acellular dermal matrix offers advanced processing in order to attempt to decrease bio-intolerance and complications in breast reconstruction and other procedures. There are little published data on the use of DermACELL in breast reconstruction.

Bullocks (2014) reported on 10 consecutive patients that presented for breast reconstruction and were candidates for tissue expanders underwent the procedure with the use of an acellular dermal matrix. The patients underwent postoperative expansion/adjuvant cancer therapy, then tissue expander exchange for permanent silicone breast prostheses. Patients were followed through the postoperative course to assess complication outcomes. Histologic evaluation of host integration into the dermal matrix was also assessed. Of the ten patients included in the study, eight completed reconstruction while two patients failed reconstruction. The failures were related to chronic seromas and infection. Histology analysis confirms rapid integration of mesenchymal cells into the matrix compared to other acellular dermal matrices.

Vashi described the use of DermACELL acellular dermal matrix in two-stage postmastectomy breast reconstruction. Ten consecutive breast cancer patients were treated with mastectomies and immediate reconstruction from August to November 2011. There were 8 bilateral and 1 unilateral mastectomies for a total of 17 breasts, with one exclusion for chronic tobacco use. Reconstruction included the use of a new 6 × 16 cm sterile, room temperature acellular dermal matrix patch (DermACELL) soaked in a cefazolin bath. Results. Of the 17 breasts, 15 reconstructions were completed; 14 of them with expander to implant sequence and acellular dermal matrix. Histological analysis of biopsies obtained during trimming of the matrix at the second stage appeared nonremarkable with evidence of normal healing, cellularity, and vascular infiltration.

Zenn and Salzberg (2016) reported on their experience with Dermacell to Alloderm-RTU.. The authors stated that retrospective study draws on the experience of 2 expert surgeons with a history of long-standing use of the Alloderm-RTU (LifeCell Corporation, Branchburg, NJ) product who switched to the DermACELL acellular dermal matrix (LifeNet Health, Virgina Beach, Va) product. The authors stated that the consecutive nature of these data over this change allowed comparison between the 2 products without the confounding effects of patient selection or change in technique. The postoperative complications of seroma, infection, implant loss, and unplanned return to the operating room were studied, and no statistical differences were noted between these 2 products. The overall complications rates  were low, with implant loss and infection less than 2% in 249 cases. The authors recommended use of acellular dermal matrix in breast reconstruction and product selection based on price and availability.

Pittman et al (2017) compared the clinical outcomes between available acellular dermal matrixes DermACELL and AlloDerm RTU. A retrospective chart review was performed on 58 consecutive patients (100 breasts) reconstructed with either DermACELL(n=30 patients; 50 breasts) or AlloDerm RTU (n=28 patients; 50 breasts). The mastectomies were performed by three different breast surgeons. All reconstructions were performed by the same Plastic surgeon (TAP). Statistical analysis was performed by Fisher's exact test. The average age, BMI, percent having neo-djuvant/adjuvant chemotherapy or breast irradiation, and numbers of therapeutic and prophylactic mastectomies between the two groups was not statistically significant (p<0.05). Complications in both cohorts of patients were clinically recorded for 90 days post immediate reconstruction. The authors reported that, when comparing outcomes, patients in the DermACELL group had significantly less incidence of 'red breast' (0% vs 26%, p=0.0001) and fewer days before drain removal(15.8 vs 20.6, p=0.017). No significant difference was seen in terms of seroma, hematoma, delayed healing, infection, flap necrosis, and explantation.

Expander-Implant Breast Reconstruction

Chen and associates (2016) noted that immediate expander-implant breast reconstruction (EIBR) with external beam radiation therapy (XRT) is pursued by many breast cancer patients; however, there is still a lack of consensus on the expected clinical outcomes.  These researchers performed a critical analysis of post-operative outcomes in EIBR patients with XRT exposure through a retrospective review from January 2007 to December 2013.  Patients were stratified into 3 groups:
  1. exposure to pre-operative XRT (XRT-pre),
  2. post-operative XRT (XRT-post), or
  3. no XRT (control). 

A subset of XRT patients with bilateral EIBR was assessed using a matched-pair analysis with the patients serving as their own controls.  A total of 76 patients were included in the study.  Major complications were observed in 6 of 8, 26 of 38, and 14 of 30 patients in the XRT-pre, XRT-post, and control groups, respectively, and were not statistically different (p > 0.05).  Failure rates of EIBR were 13.3 % in the control group compared to 50.0 % in the XRT-pre group (p = 0.044) and 26.3 % in the XRT-post group (p > 0.05).  In the matched-pair analysis, 16 of 26 irradiated breasts developed complications compared to only 7 of 26 contralateral non-irradiated breasts (p = 0.043).  The authors detected a significantly increased risk of complications in patients with pre-mastectomy radiotherapy.  Patients with this history of XRT should strongly consider autologous reconstruction instead of EIBR to avoid the high risk of developing complications and subsequently losing their implant.  They stated that increased complications in irradiated breasts when compared to the contralateral non-irradiated breasts in bilateral EIBR patients confirmed the detrimental role of XRT in the setting of EIBR.

Nipple Reconstruction

Winocour and colleagues (2016) stated that many techniques have been described for nipple reconstruction, with the principal limitation being excessive loss of projection.  The ideal reconstructed nipple provides sustained projection, the fewest complications, and high levels of patient satisfaction.  A variety of materials are available for projection augmentation, including autologous, allogeneic, and synthetic materials.  To date, there has been no systematic review to study the efficacy, projection, and complication rates of different materials used in nipple reconstruction.  Medline, Embase, and PubMed databases were searched, from inception to August of 2014, to identify literature reporting on outcomes of autologous, allogeneic, and synthetic grafts in nipple reconstruction.  Retrospective and prospective studies with controlled and uncontrolled conditions were included.  Studies reporting the use of autologous flap techniques without grafts and articles lacking post-operative outcomes were excluded.  Study quality was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale.  A total of 31 studies met the inclusion criteria.  After evidence review, 1 study represented 2 of 9 stars on the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale, 2 studies represented 3 stars, 6 studies represented 4 stars, 7 studies represented 5 stars, 11 studies represented 6 stars, and 4 studies represented 7 stars.  The authors concluded that the findings of this review revealed heterogeneity in the type of material used within each category and inconsistent methodology used in outcomes assessment in nipple reconstruction.  Overall, the quality of evidence was low.  Synthetic materials had higher complication rates and allogeneic grafts had nipple projection comparable to that of autologous grafts.  They stated that further investigation with high-level evidence is needed to determine the optimal material for nipple reconstruction.

Table: CPT Codes / HCPCS Codes / ICD-10 Codes
Code Code Description

Information in the [brackets] below has been added for clarification purposes.   Codes requiring a 7th character are represented by "+":

CPT codes covered if selection criteria are met:
11920 Tattooing, intradermal introduction of insoluble opaque pigments to correct color defects of skin, including micropigmentation; 6.0 sq cm or less
11921      6.1 to 20.0 sq cm
+ 11922      each additional 20.0 sq cm (List separately in addition to code for primary procedure)
11970 Replacement of tissue expander with permanent prosthesis
11971 Removal of tissue expander(s) without insertion of prosthesis
15877 Suction assisted lipectomy; trunk
19316 Mastopexy
19318 Reduction mammaplasty
19324 Mammaplasty, augmentation; without prosthetic implant
19325      with prosthetic implant
19328 Removal of intact mammary implant
19330 Removal of mammary implant material
19340 Immediate insertion of breast prosthesis following mastopexy, mastectomy or in reconstruction
19342 Delayed insertion of breast prosthesis following mastopexy, mastectomy or in reconstruction
19350 Nipple/areola reconstruction
19355 Correction of inverted nipples
19357 Breast reconstruction, immediate or delayed, with tissue expander, including subsequent expansion
19361 Breast reconstruction with latissimus dorsi flap, without prosthetic implant
19364 Breast reconstruction with free flap
19366 Breast reconstruction with other technique
19367 Breast reconstruction with transverse rectus abdominus myocutaneous flap (TRAM), single pedicle, including closure of donor site;
19368      with microvascular anastomosis (supercharging)
19369 Breast reconstruction with transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap (TRAM), double pedicle, including closure of donor site
19370 Open periprosthetic capsulotomy, breast
19371 Periprosthetic capsulectomy, breast
19380 Revision of reconstructed breast
19396 Preparation of moulage for custom breast implant

Other CPT codes related to the CPB:
19120 - 19126 Excision lesion of breast
19300 - 19307 Mastectomy procedures
21740 - 21743 Reconstructive repair of pectus excavatum or carinatum

HCPCS codes covered if selection criteria are met:
C1781 Mesh (implantable) [Cortiva]
C1789 Prosthesis, breast (implantable)
L8600 Implantable breast prosthesis, silicone or equal
Q4116 Alloderm, per square centimeter
Q4122 DermACELL, per sq cm
Q4128 Flex HD, Allopatch HD, or Matrix HD, per square centimeter
Q4130 Strattice TM, per sq cm
S2066 Breast reconstruction with gluteal artery perforator (GAP) flap, including harvesting of the flap, microvascular transfer, closure of donor site and shaping the flap into a breast, unilateral
S2067 Breast reconstruction of a single breast with "stacked" deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap(s) and/ or gluteal artery perforator (GAP) flap(s), including harvesting of the flap(s), microvascular transfer, closure of donor site(s) and shaping the flap into a breast, unilateral
S2068 Breast reconstruction with deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap or superficial inferior epigastric artery (SIEA) flap, including harvesting of the flap, microvascular transfer, closure of donor site and shaping the flap into a breast, unilateral

HCPCS codes not covered for indications listed in the CPB:
C9358 Dermal substitute, native, non-denatured collagen, fetal bovine origin (surgimend collagen matrix), per 0.5 square centimeters
C9360 Dermal substitute, native, non-denatured collagen, neonatal bovine origin (SurgiMend Collagen Matrix), per 0.5 square centimeters

Other HCPCS codes related to the CPB:
L8020 - L8039 Breast prostheses

ICD-10 codes covered if selection criteria are met:
C50.011 - C50.929 Malignant neoplasm of breast
C79.81 Secondary malignant neoplasm of breast
D05.00 - D05.92 Carcinoma in situ of breast
N60.11 - N60.19 Diffuse cystic mastopathy [severe fibrocystic disease]
Z85.3 Personal history of malignant neoplasm of breast
Z90.10 - Z90.13 Acquired absence of breast [following medically necessary mastectomy or lumpectomy resulting in significant deformity]

The above policy is based on the following references:

  1. Kotwall CA. Breast cancer treatment and chemoprevention. Can Fam Physician. 1999;45:1917-1924.
  2. Polednak AP. Postmastectomy breast reconstruction in Connecticut: Trends and predictors. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1999;104(3):669-673.
  3. Brandberg Y, Malm M, Rutqvist LE, et al. A prospective randomised study (named SVEA) of three methods of delayed breast reconstruction. Study, design, patients' preoperative problems and expectations. Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg Hand Surg. 1999;33(2):209-216.
  4. Delay E, Jorquera F, Pasi P, Gratadour AC. Autologous latissimus breast reconstruction in association with the abdominal advancement flap: A new refinement in breast reconstruction. Ann Plast Surg. 1999;42(1):67-75.
  5. Spear SL, Pennanen M, Barter J, Burke JB. Prophylactic mastectomy, oophorectomy, hysterectomy, and immediate transverse rectus abdominis muscle flap breast reconstruction in a BRCA- 2-positive patient. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1999;103(2):548-553; discussion 554-555.
  6. Yeh KA, Lyle G, Wei JP, Sherry R. Immediate breast reconstruction in breast cancer: Morbidity and outcome. Am Surg. 1998;64(12):1195-1199.
  7. Papp C, Wechselberger G, Schoeller T. Autologous breast reconstruction after breast-conserving cancer surgery. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1998;102(6):1932-1936; discussion 1937-1938.
  8. Chavoin JP, Grolleau JL, Lanfrey E, Lavigne B. Breast reconstruction after mastectomy for cancer. Rev Prat. 1998;48(1):67-70.
  9. Delay E, Gounot N, Bouillot A, Zlatoff P, et al. Autologous latissimus breast reconstruction: A 3-year clinical experience with 100 patients. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1998;102(5):1461-1478.
  10. Bostwick J. Breast reconstruction after mastectomy and breast implants. Current status in the USA. Ann Chir Plast Esthet. 1997;42(2):100-106.
  11. Salmon RJ. Evolution of the surgery of cancer of the breast. Bull Cancer. 1998;85(6):539-543.
  12. Strozzo MD. An overview of surgical management of stage I and stage II breast cancer for the primary care provider. Lippincotts Prim Care Pract. 1998;2(2):160-169.
  13. Hidalgo DA, Borgen PJ, Petrek JA, et al. Immediate reconstruction after complete skin-sparing mastectomy with autologous tissue. J Am Coll Surg. 1998;187(1):17-21.
  14. Evans GR, Kroll SS. Choice of technique for reconstruction. Clin Plast Surg. 1998;25(2):311-316.
  15. Papp C, McCraw JB. Autogenous latissimus breast reconstruction. Clin Plast Surg. 1998;25(2):261-266.
  16. Kroll SS. Bilateral breast reconstruction. Clin Plast Surg. 1998;25(2):251-259.
  17. Serletti JM, Moran SL. The combined use of the TRAM and expanders/implants in breast reconstruction. Ann Plast Surg. 1998;40(5):510-514.
  18. Bhatty MA, Berry RB. Nipple-areola reconstruction by tattooing and nipple sharing. Br J Plast Surg. 1997;50(5):331-334.
  19. Blondeel PN. One hundred free DIEP flap breast reconstructions: A personal experience. Br J Plast Surg. 1999;52(2):104-111.
  20. Feller AM. Reconstruction of the female breast with free transverse lower abdominal flap as perforator flap. Langenbecks Arch Chir Suppl Kongressbd. 1998;115:971-972.
  21. Hamdi M, Weiler-Mithoff EM, Webster MH. Deep inferior epigastric perforator flap in breast reconstruction: Experience with the first 50 flaps. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1999;103(1):86-95.
  22. Blondeel PN, Boeckx WD. Refinements in free flap breast reconstruction: The free bilateral deep inferior epigastric perforator flap anastomosed to the internal mammary artery. Br J Plast Surg. 1994;47(7):495-501.
  23. National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. (NORD). Poland syndrome. In: NORD Rare Disease Database. New Fairfield, CT:  NORD; 1996. Availableat:http://www.stepstn.com/cgi-win/nord.exe?proc=Redirect&type=rdb_sum&id=440.htm. Accessed February 15, 2002.
  24. Blondeel PN, Demuynck M, Mete D, et al. Sensory nerve repair in perforator flaps for autologous breast reconstruction: Sensational or senseless? Br J Plast Surg. 1999;52(1):37-44.
  25. Blondeel N, Vanderstraeten GG, Monstrey SJ, et al. The donor site morbidity of free DIEP flaps and free TRAM flaps for breast reconstruction. Br J Plast Surg. 1997;50(5):322-330.
  26. Nahabedian MY, Dooley W, Singh N, et al. Contour abnormalities of the abdomen after breast reconstruction with abdominal flaps: The role of muscle preservation. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2002;109(1):91-101.
  27. Yap LH, Whiten SC, Forster A, et al. The anatomical and neurophysiological basis of the sensate free TRAM and DIEP flaps. Br J Plast Surg. 2002;55(1):35-45.
  28. Guzzetti T, Thione A. Successful breast reconstruction with a perforator to deep inferior epigastric perforator flap. Ann Plast Surg. 2001;46(6):641-643.
  29. Keller A. The deep inferior epigastric perforator free flap for breast reconstruction. Ann Plast Surg. 2001;46(5):474-480.
  30. Kroll SS. Fat necrosis in free transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous and deep inferior epigastric perforator flaps. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2000;106(3):576-583.
  31. Rainsbury RM. Breast-sparing reconstruction with latissimus dorsi miniflaps. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2002;28(8):891-895.
  32. Sauven P; Association of Breast Surgery Family History Guidelines Panel. Guidelines for the management of women at increased familial risk of breast cancer. Eur J Cancer. 2004;40(5):653-665.
  33. Fischbacher C. Immediate versus delayed breast reconstruction. STEER: Succint and Timely Evaluated Evidence Reviews. Bazian, Ltd., eds. London, UK: Wessex Institute for Health Research and Development, University of Southampton; 2002; 2(17):1-18.
  34. Fischbacher C. Cosmetic breast augmentation. STEER: Succint and TImely Evaluated Evidence Reviews. Bazian, Ltd., eds. London, UK: Wessex Institute for Health Research and Development, University of Southampton; 2003:3(1):1-12.
  35. Edlich RF, Winters KL, Faulkner BC, et al. Advances in breast reconstruction after mastectomy. J Long Term Eff Med Implants. 2005;15(2):197-207.
  36. Fentiman IS, Hamed H. Breast reconstruction. Int J Clin Pract. 2006;60(4):471-474.
  37. Javaid M, Song F, Leinster S, et al. Radiation effects on the cosmetic outcomes of immediate and delayed autologous breast reconstruction: An argument about timing. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2006;59(1):16-26.
  38. Chang DS, McGrath MH. Management of benign tumors of the adolescent breast. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2007;120(1):13e-19e.
  39. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE). Laparoscopic mobilisation of the greater omentum for breast reconstruction. Interventional Procedure Guidance 253. London, UK: NICE; 2008.
  40. Losken A, Hamdi M. Partial breast reconstruction: Current perspectives. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2009;124(3):722-736.
  41. Humphreys K. Autologous fat injection for breast reconstruction. Horizon Scanning Report. Health Policy Advisory Committee on Technology (HealthPACT), Australia and New Zealand Horizon Scanning Network (ANZHSN); August 2008.
  42. Hyakusoku H, Ogawa R, Ono S, et al. Complications after autologous fat injection to the breast. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2009;123(1):360-370; discussion 371-372.
  43. Gutowski KA; ASPS Fat Graft Task Force. Current applications and safety of autologous fat grafts: A report of the ASPS fat graft task force. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2009;124(1):272-280.
  44. Mizuno H, Hyakusoku H. Fat grafting to the breast and adipose-derived stem cells: Recent scientific consensus and controversy. Aesthet Surg J. 2010;30(3):381-387.
  45. Cook Biotech Incorporated. Biodesign Nipple Reconstruction Cylinder [website]. West Lafayette, IN: Cook Biotech Incoporated; 2009. Available at: http://www.cookmedical.com/sur/content/mmedia/FP0054-01C.pdf. Accessed January 24, 2012.
  46. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE). Breast reconstruction using lipomodelling after breast cancer treatment. Interventional Procedure Guidance 417. London, UK: NICE; January 2012.
  47. Phillips BT, Bishawi M, Dagum AB, et al. A systematic review of antibiotic use and infection in breast reconstruction: What is the evidence? Plast Reconstr Surg. 2013;131(1):1-13.
  48. Claro F Jr, Figueiredo JC, Zampar AG, et al. Applicability and safety of autologous fat for reconstruction of the breast. Br J Surg. 2012;99(6):768-80.
  49. Llewellyn-Bennett R, Greenwood R, Benson JR, et al. Randomized clinical trial on the effect of fibrin sealant on latissimus dorsi donor-site seroma formation after breast reconstruction. Br J Surg. 2012;99(10):1381-1388.
  50. Ibrahim AM, Ayeni OA, Hughes KB, et al. Acellular dermal matrices in breast surgery: A comprehensive review. Ann Plast Surg. 2013;70(6):732-738.
  51. Cheng A, Saint-Cyr M. Comparison of different ADM materials in breast surgery. Clin Plast Surg. 2012;39(2):167-175.
  52. Allen RJ, Haddock NT, Ahn CY, Sadeghi A. Breast reconstruction with the profunda artery perforator flap. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2012;129(1):16e-23e.
  53. DellaCroce FJ, Sullivan SK, Trahan C, Jenkins CE. Body lift perforator flap breast reconstruction: A review of 100 flaps in 25 cases. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2012;129(3):551-561.
  54. Morris D. Principles of grafts and flaps for reconstructive surgery. UpToDate [serial online]. Waltham, MA: UpToDate; reviewed December 2013.
  55. Nahabedian M. Breast reconstruction in women with breast cancer. UpToDate [serial online]. Waltham, MA: UpToDate; reviewed December 2013.
  56. Tanna N, Broer PN, Weichman KE, et al. Microsurgical breast reconstruction for nipple-sparing mastectomy. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2013;131(2):139e-147e.
  57. Levine SM, Snider C, Gerald G, et al. Buried flap reconstruction after nipple-sparing mastectomy: Advancing toward single-stage breast reconstruction. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2013;132(4):489e-497e.
  58. Weichman KE, Broer PN, Tanna N, et al. The role of autologous fat grafting in secondary microsurgical breast reconstruction. Ann Plast Surg. 2013;71(1):24-30.
  59. Healy C, Allen RJ Sr. The evolution of perforator flap breast reconstruction: Twenty years after the first DIEP flap. J Reconstr Microsurg. 2014;30(2):121-125.
  60. Tsoi B, Ziolkowski NI, Thoma A, et al. Safety of tissue expander/implant versus autologous abdominal tissue breast reconstruction in postmastectomy breast cancer patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2014;133(2):234-249.
  61. Valdatta L, Cattaneo AG, Pellegatta I, et al. Acellular dermal matrices and radiotherapy in breast reconstruction: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature. Plast Surg Int. 2014;2014:472604.
  62. Agha RA, Fowler AJ, Herlin C, et al. Use of autologous fat grafting for breast reconstruction: A systematic review with meta-analysis of oncological outcomes. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2015;68(2):143-161.
  63. Masia J, Bordoni D, Pons G, et al. Oncological safety of breast cancer patients undergoing free-flap reconstruction and lipofilling. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2015;41(5):612-616.
  64. Letter from Jan Welch, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, MD to Robert Beuhler, TEI Biosciences, Inc., Boston, MA, May 29, 2015.
  65. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). MAUDE Adverse Event Report: TEI Biosciences Inc. Surgimend Surgical Mesh, July 17, 2009.
  66. Bullocks JM. DermACELL: A novel and biocompatible acellular dermal matrix in tissue expander and implant-based breast reconstruction. Eur J Plast Surg. 2014;37(10):529-538.
  67. Vashi C. Clinical outcomes for breast cancer patients undergoing mastectomy and reconstruction with use of DermACELL, a sterile, room temperature acellular dermal matrix. Plast Surg Int. 2014;2014:704323.
  68. Rocco N, Rispoli C, Moja L, et al. Different types of implants for reconstructive breast surgery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;(5):CD010895.
  69. Chen TA, Momeni A, Lee GK. Clinical outcomes in breast cancer expander-implant reconstructive patients with radiation therapy. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2016;69(1):14-22.
  70. Winocour S, Saksena A, Oh C, et al. A systematic review of comparison of autologous, allogeneic, and synthetic augmentation grafts in nipple reconstruction. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2016;137(1):14e-23e.
  71. Zenn MR, Salzberg CA. A direct comparison of Alloderm-Ready to Use (RTU) and DermACELL in immediate breast implant reconstruction. Eplasty. 2016;16:e23.
  72. Pittman TA, Fan KL, Knapp A, et al. Comparison of different acellular dermal matrix (ADM) in breast reconstruction: The 50/50 Study. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2017;139(3):521-528. 
  73. Lee BT, Agarwal JP, Ascherman JA, et al. Evidence-based clinical practice guideline: Autologous breast reconstruction with DIEP or pedicled TRAM abdominal flaps. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2017;140(5):651e-664e
  74. Cooke AL, Diaz-Abele J, Hayakawa T, et al. Radiation therapy versus no radiation therapy to the neo-breast following skin-sparing mastectomy and immediate autologous free flap reconstruction for breast cancer: Patient-reported and surgical outcomes at 1 year-A mastectomy reconstruction outcomes consortium (MROC) substudy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2017;99(1):165-172.
  75. Olsen MA, Nickel KB, Fox IK, et al. Comparison of wound complications after immediate, delayed, and secondary breast reconstruction procedures. JAMA Surg. 2017;152(9):e172338.
  76. Bennett KG, Qi J, Kim HM, Hamill JB, et al. Association of fat grafting with patient-reported outcomes in postmastectomy breast reconstruction. JAMA Surg. 2017;152(10):944-950.